Artificial Empathy: Creepy or Beneficial?

Photo Credit: Pavel Danilyuk, Pexels

 

By Lilian H. Hill

 

Artificial empathy refers to the simulation of human empathy by artificial intelligence systems, allowing them to recognize, understand, and respond to human emotions in a way that appears empathetic. Empathy encompasses various cognitive and emotional abilities that allow us to understand the internal states of others. Consequently, developing artificial empathy represents both a symbolic goal and a significant challenge for artificial systems, especially robots, as they work towards creating a potentially symbiotic society (Asada, 2018).

Artificial empathy has significant implications for the development of social robots, customer service bots, and other AI applications that interact with humans on a personal level. Below are some key aspects, applications, benefits and drawbacks of artificial empathy.

Key Aspects of Artificial Empathy

Emotion Recognition: AI systems use sensors and algorithms to detect human emotions through facial expressions, voice tones, and body language. These data are processed to identify specific emotional states.

Sentiment Analysis: By analyzing text data from conversations, social media, force and speed of keystrokes, or other sources, AI can gauge the sentiment behind the words and understand the emotional context.

Context Awareness: AI systems are designed to understand the context of interactions, considering factors like the user's environment, past interactions, and specific situations to respond appropriately.

Personalization: Artificial empathy involves tailoring responses based on the user's emotional state and preferences, creating a more personalized interaction.

Behavioral Mimicry: AI can be programmed to exhibit empathy behaviors, such as offering comforting words, showing understanding, or providing appropriate responses in emotional situations.

Applications of Artificial Empathy

Healthcare: AI systems with artificial empathy can support patients by providing emotional comfort, recognizing signs of distress, and improving the overall patient experience.

Customer Service: Chatbots and virtual assistants can use artificial empathy to handle customer inquiries more effectively by responding to the customer's emotional state.

Education: AI tutors can provide personalized support, recognizing when a student is frustrated or confused and adjusting their teaching methods accordingly.

Companionship: Social robots with artificial empathy can provide companionship to individuals, particularly the elderly or those with special needs, by engaging in empathetic interactions.

Benefits and Drawbacks

Artificial empathy can significantly enhance interactions between humans and AI systems but also presents challenges and ethical concerns.

Benefits

AI systems that recognize and respond to emotions create more natural and satisfying interactions, improving user satisfaction and engagement. Empathetic AI in customer service can handle queries more effectively, reducing frustration and increasing loyalty by providing more personalized and considerate responses. AI with artificial empathy can offer support in mental health contexts, providing immediate emotional recognition and support and assisting professionals by monitoring patient well-being. For elderly or isolated individuals, empathetic robots and virtual assistants can provide companionship, reducing feelings of loneliness and improving quality of life.  AI with empathy can be used in educational tools and training programs, providing supportive and encouraging feedback to learners and enhancing their motivation and learning outcomes.

Drawbacks

There is a risk that users may feel deceived if they discover that a machine simulated the empathy they experienced, potentially damaging trust in AI systems.  Emotion recognition often requires sensitive data, such as facial expressions and tone. This raises concerns about data privacy and security and the potential misuse of personal information. AI with artificial empathy could manipulate emotions for commercial or political purposes, exploiting users' emotional states to influence their decisions or behaviors. Over-reliance on empathetic AI for emotional support might reduce human-to-human interactions, potentially impacting social skills and relationships. The development and use of artificial empathy raise ethical questions about the boundaries of human-AI interaction, the role of AI in emotional contexts, and the potential for AI to replace human empathy in critical situations. Current AI systems might misinterpret emotions or provide inappropriate responses, leading to frustration or harm rather than support.

Balancing these benefits and drawbacks is crucial for developing and deploying artificial empathy in AI systems.

 

References

Asada, M. (2018). Artificial empathy. In K. Shigemasu, S. Kuwano, T. Sato, & T. Matsuzawa (Eds.), Diversity in Harmony – Insights from Psychology. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119362081.ch2

Galiniostech (2023, November 6). Robots in everyday life: A glimpse into the future. Medium. https://medium.com/@galiniostech/robots-in-everyday-life-a-glimpse-into-the-future-c966640a783d

Wright, J. (2023, January 9). Inside Japan’s long experiment in automating elder care: The country wanted robots to help care for the elderly. What happened? MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/01/09/1065135/japan-automating-eldercare-robots/

Do you live in a news desert?

By Lilian H. Hill

You may have heard of food deserts, areas where residents lack reliable access to healthy foods. However, the term news desert may need to be clarified.

A news desert is a rural or urban community that lacks access to local news coverage. News deserts are areas without a reliable local news source that offers significant and trustworthy reporting on important issues like health, government, and the environment. This absence leaves residents unaware of regional events, hindering their ability to participate fully as informed citizens. Questions about the actions of their local government, the candidates they should support, and the use of their tax dollars still need to be answered in these communities (Sullivan, 2022).

News deserts can occur for several reasons, including the closure of local newspapers, reductions in the workforce of existing media outlets, or the shift of media consumption to national or global platforms that do not cover local issues in depth (Abernathy, 2020; American Journalism Project, 2024). Abernathy (2020) wrote, "Many of the country’s 6,700 surviving papers have become ‘ghost newspapers’ – mere shells of their former selves, with greatly diminished newsrooms and readership. The loss of both journalists and circulation speaks to the declining influence of local newspapers, and raises questions about their long-term financial viability in a digital era” (p. 9). Research indicates that 70 million Americans currently reside in areas lacking sufficient local news to support grassroots democracy (Sullivan, 2022).

Importance of Local News

Local news is crucial for a healthy democracy; it helps communities understand the stakes in local elections, encourages political engagement through voting, contacting officials, and running for office, reduces political polarization, and holds public officials accountable (American Journalism Project, 2024).

Local news keeps residents informed about what is happening in their community, enabling them to make educated decisions about local issues, elections, and policies. It fosters community by highlighting local events, traditions, and stories that unite people. Local news can strengthen community bonds and provide a platform for local voices and perspectives.

Local news encourages civic engagement by informing residents about local meetings, public hearings, and other opportunities to participate in community governance. It can motivate people to participate in regional issues and volunteer for community projects. Local journalism highlights cultural and social issues within the community, promoting understanding and dialogue among diverse groups. It can shine a light on marginalized or underserved populations and their concerns.

Helping citizens understand how local government functions and how it impacts their daily lives is a function of local news. Local journalism holds local government officials, businesses, and other institutions accountable by investigating and reporting on their actions. It promotes transparency and exposes corruption, mismanagement, or other issues that might go unnoticed. A robust local news ecosystem can support local economies by promoting local businesses, events, and services. It can attract and retain residents who value being well-informed about their community.

Local news outlets often enjoy higher levels of trust than national or international media because they are closer to their audience. Trustworthy local news can counter misinformation and provide a reliable source of information for residents. A well-informed public is essential for the functioning of a healthy democracy. Local news gives citizens the information they need to participate in democratic processes. It ensures that local elections are fair and that elected officials are responsive to their constituents.

Consequences of News Deserts

Research indicates that the decline of local news hurts our democracy, contributing to polarization, decreased voter turnout, and reduced government accountability (Abernathy, 2000). The absence of local news coverage can have significant impacts on communities, such as:

 

·       Reduced Civic Engagement: Local news is crucial in informing citizens about local government, elections, and community issues. Without it, people may be less informed and engaged in civic activities.

 

·       Lack of Accountability: Local journalism often holds local government and institutions accountable. Without local media scrutiny, there may be less transparency and more opportunities for corruption or mismanagement.

 

·       Community Disconnect: Local news helps build community by highlighting local events, issues, and stories. With it, there may be a greater sense of connection among residents.

Prevalence of News Deserts

According to Northwestern University Medill School of Journalism and Media (2023), there are 204 counties in the U.S. without a local news outlet. Out of the 3,143 counties, more than half—1,766—have either no local news source or only one remaining, typically a weekly newspaper. The decline of local newspapers accelerated in 2023, averaging 2.5 closures per week, up from two per week the previous year. Over 130 newspapers closed or merged this past year. Since 2005, the U.S. has lost nearly 2,900 newspapers and will lose one-third of its total by 2024, leaving about 6,000, primarily weeklies (Northwestern Medill, 2023). Due to demographics and economics, Medill’s modeling indicates that 228 counties are at an elevated risk of becoming news deserts within the next five years.

 

Most of these "Watch List" counties are in high-poverty areas in the South and Midwest, often serving communities with significant African American, Hispanic, and Native American populations. In news deserts, the median income is lower, the number of people with college degrees is lower, and the poverty rate is higher (Abernathy, 2020). This is like the distribution of food deserts (Khatoon, 2024).

 

You can track news agencies that exist in your county through a service of the University of North Carolina’s Hussman School of Journalism and Media (2024). Their website features a searchable map allowing you to select your state and county. That search reveals the number of newspapers available in your county, alongside the county's median income. Below that, statistics for your state are provided, including population demographics, economic status, median income, and state and federal voting turnout and results.

 

Ways to Remedy News Deserts

News deserts, with limited access to local news and information, are a growing concern. Addressing this issue requires a multi-faceted approach. Here are some ways to remedy news deserts:

 

Nonprofit news organizations can help provide quality journalism without the pressure of generating profit. These organizations can receive funding from donations, grants, and partnerships.

Local community foundations and philanthropists can be encouraged to invest in local journalism, which can sustain and expand news coverage. Grant programs specifically aimed at supporting local news initiatives can be effective.

Public and Community Radio/TV can fill gaps in local news coverage. These outlets often provide in-depth local reporting and can serve as a vital source of information. Local businesses benefit by advertising with local news outlets.

University and Student Journalism can create opportunities for students to cover local news. This can provide practical experience for students while benefiting the community with additional news coverage.

Digital News Startups can offer flexible and cost-effective ways to deliver local news. These startups can leverage social media, newsletters, and other digital tools to reach audiences. Employing technology and data journalism to produce and distribute local news can make local news more efficient to deliver. Mobile apps, social media platforms, and online forums can be used to disseminate news and engage with the community.

Government and Policy Support can advocate for policies that support local journalism, such as tax incentives for local news organizations and public funding for journalism initiatives. They can also ensure that public notices and other essential information are accessible through local news outlets.

Community Engagement and Citizen Journalism promotes community engagement, and encouraging citizen journalism can help fill reporting gaps. Training programs for community members to report on local issues can empower residents and increase news coverage.

References

Abernathy, P. M. (2020). News deserts and ghost newspapers: Will local news survive? https://www.usnewsdeserts.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/2020_News_Deserts_and_Ghost_Newspapers.pdf

American Journalism Project (2024). The state of local news and why it matters. https://www.theajp.org/news-insights/the-state-of-local-news-and-why-it-matters/

Khatoon, H. (2023, November 1). What are food deserts and why do they exist? https://sentientmedia.org/food-desert/#:~:text=Food%20deserts%20exist%20across%20the,high%20density%20of%20food%20deserts.

Northwestern Medill (2023). More than half of U.S. counties have no access or very limited access to local news. https://www.medill.northwestern.edu/news/2023/more-than-half-of-us-counties-have-no-access-or-very-limited-access-to-local-news.html

Sullivan, M. (2022, June 29). Every week, two more newspapers close — and ‘news deserts’ grow larger. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/media/2022/06/29/news-deserts-newspapers-democracy?

UNC School of Journalism and Media (2024). Do you live in a news desert? https://www.usnewsdeserts.com?

Metaliteracy, Transliteracy, and New Literacies: The Same or Different?

 

By Lilian H. HIll

Over the last 18 months, we have written about many forms of literacy, including algorithmic, assessment, cultural, digital, emotional, financial, graphic, health, historical, information, literacy 4.0/5.0, news, organizational health, scientific, social media, and visual literacies. Other types of literacy still need to be tackled. Attaching the word literacy to so many ideas raises the question of whether basic literacy (the ability to read, write, comprehend, and do basic math) is being distorted.

While literacy is often defined as the ability to read and write, it can also be described as competence in a specific area. In that sense, literacy is a set of skills needed to function daily. As society becomes ever more complex, the literacy skills required to navigate life are expanding rather than being distorted. Functional literacy refers to the capacity of a person to engage in all activities which requires effective functioning. UNESCO defines functional literacy as “the capacity of a person to engage in all those activities in which literacy is required for effective function of his or her group and community and also for enabling him or her to continue to use reading, writing and calculation for his or her own and the community's development” (n.d.).

 

Categorical Terms for Literacy

The proliferation of novel descriptors of literacy has precipitated new terms used to describe categories of literacies: metaliteracy, trans literacy, and new literacies.

• Metaliteracy is an overarching framework encompassing various types of literacy, including digital, information, media, and visual literacies. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of different literacies and the importance of reflective, participatory, and ethical practices. It emphasizes the importance of understanding how to critically assess, produce, and share information in a collaborative and participatory digital environment. It goes beyond individual literacies to include metacognitive skills, encouraging learners to reflect on their learning processes and become proactive, ethical participants in collaborative online environments. 

• Transliteracy is the ability to read, write, and interact across various platforms, tools, and media. This concept goes beyond traditional literacy, typically focused on reading and writing in print formats, encompassing digital, visual, textual, and technological literacies. Transliteracy reflects the interconnected, multimodal nature of contemporary communication and information practices.
  

• New literacies refer to the skills and competencies required to navigate and engage with digital and networked environments effectively. This concept focuses on the specific abilities needed to use digital tools and platforms for communication, information retrieval, and content creation. These include digital literacy, media literacy, information literacy, visual literacy, and more. They emphasize the ability to locate, evaluate, create, and communicate information using various digital tools and platforms. Each new literacy addresses specific aspects of interacting with digital media and information technologies, such as understanding visual content (visual literacy) or critically analyzing media messages (media literacy).

 

Distinctions Among the Three Terms

A comparative table highlighting the characteristics of metaliteracy, transliteracy, and new literacies serves to delve more deeply into the distinctions among these three terms:

 

Characteristic	Metaliteracy	Transliteracy	New Literacies
Scope	Broad and inclusive, covering traditional, digital, and social media literacies.	Broad, but focused on navigating and integrating multiple forms of media and technology.	Narrow, focused on literacies specific to digital environments and new media.
Key Components	Critical thinking, metacognition, collaboration, and participatory learning.	Multimodal communication, cross-platform proficiency, interconnectedness, and adaptability.	Digital literacy, media literacy, and the ability to use and critique new technologies.
Focus	Developing self-awareness in learning processes and the ability to assess and adapt to various literacies.	Navigating and creating content across different media and platforms.	Using and understanding new digital tools and platforms, often in social contexts.
Skills Emphasized	Reflective learning, critical evaluation, ethical participation, and adaptability.	Multimodal literacy, digital and media literacy, critical thinking, and adaptability.	Navigating digital environments, creating and interpreting digital content, and critical thinking.
Examples of Practice	Collaborative research projects, critical analysis of information sources, and participatory digital citizenship.	Creating multimedia projects, engaging in social media, and integrating various forms of media in communication.	Blogging, social media participation, digital storytelling, and online collaboration.
Educational Approach	Encourages reflective practice, critical thinking, and the integration of various literacies.	Promotes the integration of different media and platforms in learning and communication.	Emphasizes the importance of digital tools and platforms in contemporary literacy practices.
Challenges Addressed	Information overload, the credibility of sources, ethical use of information, and the integration of multiple literacies.	Navigating complex, multimodal communication landscapes and adapting to new tools and media.	Keeping up with rapidly evolving technologies and ensuring equitable access to digital literacies.
Goals	To create self-aware, critically engaged, and adaptable learners.	To enable individuals to communicate effectively across multiple media and platforms.	To equip individuals with the skills needed to navigate and create in digital environments.

 

All three concepts recognize the evolving landscape of information and technology and emphasize the need for diverse, adaptable skills to navigate this environment effectively. Metaliteracy is a broader, integrative framework that combines various literacies and emphasizes critical thinking and active participation in online, collaborative communities (Badke, 2019). Transliteracy involves seamlessly and effectively understanding and using multiple forms of communication, including traditional print, digital media, and other emerging technologies. On the other hand, new literacies focus more narrowly on the specific digital skills and competencies needed to engage with digital environments effectively.

 

References

Badke, W. E. (2019). Metaliteracy, the framework, and all those other statements. Online Searcher, 43(5), 55-57.

UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Functional literacy. https://uis.unesco.org/en/glossary-term/functional-literacy

 

The Relationship Between Information Literacy and Social Epistemology

 

 

By Lilian H. Hill

Examining the relationship between information literacy and social epistemology is important for developing critical thinking, making informed decisions, and participating effectively in society. Exploring these ideas together enhances educational outcomes, professional capabilities, and personal growth while also addressing broader societal challenges like misinformation and social justice. By delving into these areas, individuals and communities can foster a more informed, equitable, and dynamic knowledge landscape.

 

Definitions

• Information literacy is the skills and abilities needed to effectively find, evaluate, use, and communicate the huge amount of information available today. It includes recognizing credible sources, critical thinking, and understanding the ethical uses of information. In other words, information literacy is the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning.

• Epistemology is the study of knowledge, meaning the philosophical basis of how we know what we know or think we know. The ultimate test of whether information is true or false is an epistemological question.

• Social epistemology is a subfield that focuses on the social dimensions of knowledge acquisition and dissemination. Social epistemology provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the social aspects of knowledge, highlighting the importance of collective practices, institutions, and power dynamics in shaping what we know and how we know it. It bridges the gap between individual cognition and social processes, offering valuable insights into the complex interplay between knowledge and society.

• Knowledge construction is how individuals and groups develop and organize knowledge through experiences, interactions, and reflections. It involves actively integrating new information with existing cognitive structures, resulting in a deeper understanding and refined perspectives. This process is dynamic and ongoing, influenced by various cognitive, social, cultural, and contextual factors.

Key Concepts in Social Epistemology

Social epistemology involves the “mental choices involved in shaping knowledge, the sources of evidence for those choices, the evaluation of outcomes of those choices, and the types of actors involved in the choices” (Nord, 2019, p. 3). Unlike traditional epistemology, which primarily concerns individual knowers and isolated knowledge claims, social epistemology examines the collective processes, practices, and institutions that contribute to developing and spreading knowledge within a community or society. Social epistemology explores how individuals can most effectively seek the truth, either with the assistance of or despite other people, social practices, and institutions (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2024).

• Collective Knowledge: Social epistemology investigates how groups, rather than individuals, contribute to and possess knowledge. This includes exploring how collaborative efforts, shared resources, and communal practices enhance or hinder knowledge production.

• Testimony: Testimony refers to acquiring knowledge through the reports or accounts of others. Social epistemology examines the reliability and significance of testimony, considering factors like trust, credibility, and the social mechanisms that support or undermine it.

• Epistemic Communities: These are groups that share common epistemic goals, methods, and standards. Social epistemology studies how these communities form, operate, and impact the broader knowledge landscape.

• Division of Cognitive Labor involves the specialization and distribution of epistemic tasks among different individuals or groups, acknowledging that no single person can master all knowledge domains. Social epistemologists explore how such division enhances or complicates knowledge production.

• Peer Disagreement: This concept deals with how individuals should respond to disagreements with peers, especially those considered epistemic equals. It explores the implications of such disagreements for individual belief revision and collective knowledge practices.

• Epistemic Injustice: Coined by philosopher Miranda Fricker (2007), this term refers to wrongs done to individuals in their capacity as knowers. It includes concepts like testimonial injustice (when someone’s word is given less credibility due to prejudice) and hermeneutical injustice (when someone’s social experience is obscured from collective understanding due to structural prejudices).

Critiques and Challenges

Some critics argue that emphasizing the social dimensions of knowledge can lead to relativism, where the truth is seen as contingent on social or cultural contexts. Social epistemologists respond by distinguishing between socially influenced knowledge practices and the objective nature of certain knowledge claims. The role of authority and power in knowledge production and dissemination raises concerns about potential biases and injustices. Social epistemologists critically examine how power dynamics shape who gets to be recognized as a knower and whose knowledge is valued. Balancing the benefits of epistemic diversity with the need for coherent and reliable knowledge practices is an ongoing challenge. Social epistemologists explore how diverse perspectives can be integrated into a cohesive epistemic framework.

 

Information Literacy and Social Epistemology: Shared Focus Areas and Complementary Insights

Social epistemology and information literacy are closely related fields that together provide a comprehensive understanding of how individuals and communities engage with information to construct knowledge. The table below provides an explanation of their relationship in terms of their shared focus areas (source evaluation, critical thinking, and the role of testimony) and complementary insights (context, ethical considerations, and knowledge construction):

 

	Social Epistemology	Information Literacy
	Shared Focus Areas
Source Evaluation	Analyzes how social factors like trust, credibility, and authority affect the evaluation of information sources.	Teaches individuals to critically assess credibility and reliability of information sources, including understanding biases and identifying authoritative voices.
Critical Thinking	Encourages critical examination of how social influences, such as power dynamics and institutional practices, shape knowledge.	Promotes critical thinking skills to question and analyze information, avoiding misinformation and discerning trustworthy sources.
Role of Testimony	Investigates the role of testimony in knowledge acquisition, examining how trust and social relationships influence the acceptance of others' accounts.	Emphasizes the importance of evaluating testimonial evidence, such as expert opinions and eyewitness accounts, to determine their reliability.
	Complementary Insights
Context	Provides insight into the social and cultural contexts that shape information and knowledge production.	Helps individuals understand the context in which information is created and disseminated, improving their ability to interpret and use information effectively.
Ethical Considerations	Explores ethical issues related to knowledge production and dissemination, including epistemic injustice and the fair distribution of epistemic resources.	Includes understanding the ethical use of information, such as respecting intellectual property, avoiding plagiarism, and using information responsibly.
Knowledge Construction	Focuses on how knowledge is constructed collaboratively within communities, emphasizing the role of social interactions and institutional practices.	Encourages collaborative learning and the sharing of information, recognizing that knowledge is often constructed through group efforts.

 

Practical Applications

Some people might consider epistemology as too theoretical and impractical. However, combining social epistemology with information literacy provides insight into three practical applications: (1) education and training, (2) combating misinformation, and (3) enhancing public discourse.

 

		Social Epistemology		Information Literacy
Education and Training	Incorporating social epistemology into information literacy programs can help students and professionals understand the broader social dynamics that influence information and knowledge.		Teaching information literacy with a focus on social epistemology can enhance critical awareness of how social factors impact the reliability and credibility of information.
Combating Misinformation	Social epistemology's insights into the social mechanisms of misinformation can inform strategies for teaching information literacy, helping individuals to recognize and resist false information		Information literacy programs can use concepts from social epistemology to address the social and psychological factors that make individuals susceptible to misinformation.
Enhancing Public Discourse	Understanding the principles of social epistemology can improve public discourse by fostering a more critical and reflective approach to information sharing.		Information literacy initiatives can leverage social epistemology to promote more informed and respectful discussions, particularly in online and media environments.

 

The relationship between social epistemology and information literacy is symbiotic, enriching each field. Social epistemology provides a deeper understanding of the social contexts and dynamics influencing information and knowledge. In contrast, information literacy equips individuals with practical skills to navigate and critically assess the information landscape. Together, they offer a robust framework for developing more informed, critical, and ethical consumers and producers of knowledge.

 

References

Doolittle, P. E., & Hicks, D. (2003). Constructivism as a theoretical foundation for the use of technology in social studies. Theory & Research in Social Education, 31(1), 72–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2003.10473216

Fricker, M. (2007). Epistemic injustice: Power and ethics of knowing. Oxford University Press.

Nord, Martin I. (2019). Understanding critical information literacy through social epistemology. Canadian Journal of Academic Librarianship, 5, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.33137/cjal-rcbu.v5.28630

 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2024, March 22). Social epistemology. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-social/