When Misinformation Causes Harm

 

Image Credit: Pexels

By Lilian H. Hill

 

We’re learning again what we always known: Words have consequences.”

President Biden, March 19, 2021

The phrase "words have consequences" reflects a widely understood concept about the power of language and its impact on people and situations. While the quote may not have a single origin, its essence is found in numerous historical and philosophical texts and contemporary discussions. The phrase is particularly relevant in misinformation, as it highlights the real-world impact of false or misleading information on individuals and society. Misinformation, when spread through various channels, especially social media, news outlets, and word of mouth, can cause harm in several ways, mainly affecting people's beliefs, actions, and decisions. 

We are seeing the results of misinformation in the ongoing recovery from Hurricanes Helene and Milton, both of which made landfall in Florida. On September 26, Hurricane Helene landed in the Big Bend region of Florida, near Perry, with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph. Hurricane Milton made landfall with wind speeds of 120 mph on the west coast of the U.S. state of Florida, less than two weeks after Hurricane Helene. This blog post was written two months after the hurricane events and old news in the information ecosystem. It is daily life for the people who are dealing with the aftermath of the hurricanes.

Following major weather disasters, misinformation frequently surges. With Hurricane Helene impacting several battleground states, the spread of false claims has intensified. Some of the most extreme conspiracy theories circulating online suggest that politicians manipulated the weather to target Republican regions and that the government aims to seize land in North Carolina for lithium mining (Tarrant, 2024).

Misinformation during hurricane recovery has severe and far-reaching consequences, as it complicates efforts to provide accurate information, distribute resources, and ensure the safety of affected communities. For example, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, or FEMA, had to address the rumor that the $750.00 Serious Needs Assistance would be the only assistance hurricane victims would receive. In reality, Serious Needs Assistance is dispersed for “upfront, flexible payment for essential items like food, water, baby formula, breastfeeding supplies, medication and other serious disaster-related needs” (para. 1).  

Following that, “FEMA may provide money and other services to help you recover from losses caused by a presidentially declared disaster, such as damage to your home, car, and other personal items.” FEMA can provide funds for temporary housing, repair or replacement of owner-occupied homes for primary residences, temporary housing, and hazard mitigation assistance, depending on individual needs. Rumors about limited assistance can prevent people from applying for the help they need. The problem is so pervasive that FEMA maintains a Hurricane Rumors Response webpage in 12 languages that is updated with each new hurricane landfall.

Some keyways in which misinformation impacts hurricane recovery include:

 

1. Public Safety Risks

Misinformation about evacuation orders, shelter availability, or road conditions can put lives at risk. For example, if false information spreads that certain areas are safe to return to when they are not, people might expose themselves to dangerous flooding, structural instability, or other hazards. Similarly, misleading updates about ongoing storms can leave people unprepared for secondary dangers like storm surges or flash floods.

 

2. Strain on Emergency Services

False claims about the availability of emergency services or relief supplies can overwhelm first responders. People must be more informed about where they can receive aid or assistance to avoid flooding the wrong locations or resources, further straining already limited services. In extreme cases, this can divert attention from critical rescue efforts or supply distribution, delaying recovery for those in real need.

 

3. Confusion Around Relief Resources

Misinformation about accessing federal or state disaster relief can hinder recovery efforts. False claims about the steps needed to apply for financial assistance (e.g., FEMA aid), insurance processes, or donation sites may lead to frustration and slow the distribution of funds and resources. Additionally, scammers often take advantage of these situations, spreading fake donation links or relief fund drives, which siphon resources away from legitimate efforts.

 

4. Economic and Community Impact

Post-hurricane recovery efforts often rely on accurate information about damaged infrastructure, business reopening, and rebuilding efforts. Misinformation about these topics can lead to prolonged economic hardship for communities, as people may hesitate to return or invest in rebuilding due to fear or uncertainty caused by false information. Additionally, misinformation about insurance claims or rebuilding permits can delay recovery for homeowners and businesses.

 

5. Health and Well-being

During recovery, misinformation can affect the physical and mental health of individuals. For example, false information about contaminated water sources, unapproved medications, or unverified health risks can cause unnecessary fear or lead people to take inappropriate actions that worsen their situation. In some cases, rumors or unverified claims about medical conditions (such as exposure to mold or diseases post-hurricane) can prevent people from seeking proper medical care.

In summary, misinformation during hurricane recovery can exacerbate existing challenges, delay crucial response efforts, and even result in loss of life. It underscores the importance of accurate communication and the responsible sharing of information during disaster response.

 

References

Biden, J. (2021, March 19). Remarks by President Biden at Emory University. White House Briefing. Retrieved https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2021/03/19/remarks-by-president-biden-at-emory-university/

FEMA (2024, October 8). Addressing Hurricane Helene Rumors and Scams. Retrieved https://www.fema.gov/blog/addressing-hurricane-helene-rumors-and-scams

 Tarrant, R. (2024, October 7). Misinformation has surged following Hurricane Helene. Here's a fact check. CBS News. Retrieved https://www.cbsnews.com/news/hurricane-helene-fact-check-misinformation-conspiracy-theories/

 

Artificial Empathy Using Robotics

 

Image of Pepper. Photo Credit: Alex Knight, Pexels

 

By Lilian H. Hill

One example of artificial empathy is Japan's use of robots for elder care. The aging population and a declining birth rate have led to a growing demand for elder care. The national government has invested hundreds of millions of dollars in funding research and development for such care devices using artificial intelligence to display simulations of empathy (Wright, 2023). They are designed to assist in caregiving tasks, provide companionship, and improve the quality of life for the elderly. In addition to robots used for assistive care and safety monitoring, examples of robots endowed with artificial empathy include:

·      Paro: A therapeutic robot designed to look like a baby seal, Paro responds to touch and sound, providing comfort and emotional support to the elderly, particularly those with dementia. The robot is programmed to cry for attention and respond to its name. It includes an off switch.

·      Pepper: Created by Aldebaran Robotics and acquired by SoftBank Robotics in 2015, Pepper is a humanoid robot that can recognize human emotions and engage in basic conversations. It is used in elder care facilities to provide companionship, entertainment, and even lead group activities. Pepper is also used in retail settings for customer service. It talks, gesticulates, and seems determined to make everyone smile.

·      Nao: Originally created by Aldebaran Robotics, acquired by SoftBank Robotics in 2015. Nao is a small humanoid robot designed to interact with people. It is packed with sensors. It can walk, dance, speak, and recognize faces and objects. Now in its sixth generation, it is used in research, education, and healthcare all over the world.

These examples are only a small selection of humanoid robots. For more information, refer to ROBOTS: Your Guide to the World of Robotics (robotsguide.com)

It may strike you as strange, or possibly even creepy, to interact with a robot in intimate ways; however, robots are rapidly being integrated into daily life. The idea of robots was once limited to the world of science fiction, where they were depicted as humanoid machines carrying out tasks with human-like precision and intelligence. Think of R2-D2 and C-3P0 of Stars Fame or Rosey the Robot from the Jetson’s TV Shows. You could also picture Terminator as a more frightening version of movie robotics. Although humanoid robots are still a focus of research and development, robots today come in many different shapes and serve a wide range of functions in our daily lives. Robotics are used in automated vacuum cleaners, Smart home devices, home security systems, and personal assistants like Alexa and Siri (Galiniostech, 2023).

Artificial empathy aims to make interactions with AI systems feel more human-like, fostering trust and comfort in users. However, it also raises ethical considerations about the authenticity of machine-generated empathy and the potential for manipulation.

Wright (2023) notes that there needs to be more connection between promoting robotic care assistants and their actual use. His research in Japan indicates that robotic devices require setup, maintenance, and time to manage and store, reducing caregivers' time with residents. He comments that “existing social and communication-oriented tasks tended to be displaced by new tasks that involved more interaction with the robots than with the residents. Instead of saving time for staff to do more of the human labor of social and emotional care, the robots actually reduced the scope for such work” (para. 13). He concludes by saying the robotic devices may be an expensive distraction from the difficult choices we face regarding how we value people and allocate resources in our societies, leading policymakers to postpone tough decisions in the hope that future technologies will "rescue" society from the challenges of an aging population.

 

References

Galiniostech (2023, November 6). Robots in everyday life: A glimpse into the future. Medium. https://medium.com/@galiniostech/robots-in-everyday-life-a-glimpse-into-the-future-c966640a783d

Wright, J. (2023, January 9). Inside Japan’s long experiment in automating elder care: The country wanted robots to help care for the elderly. What happened? MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/01/09/1065135/japan-automating-eldercare-robots/

 

Artificial Empathy: Creepy or Beneficial?

Photo Credit: Pavel Danilyuk, Pexels

 

By Lilian H. Hill

 

Artificial empathy refers to the simulation of human empathy by artificial intelligence systems, allowing them to recognize, understand, and respond to human emotions in a way that appears empathetic. Empathy encompasses various cognitive and emotional abilities that allow us to understand the internal states of others. Consequently, developing artificial empathy represents both a symbolic goal and a significant challenge for artificial systems, especially robots, as they work towards creating a potentially symbiotic society (Asada, 2018).

Artificial empathy has significant implications for the development of social robots, customer service bots, and other AI applications that interact with humans on a personal level. Below are some key aspects, applications, benefits and drawbacks of artificial empathy.

Key Aspects of Artificial Empathy

Emotion Recognition: AI systems use sensors and algorithms to detect human emotions through facial expressions, voice tones, and body language. These data are processed to identify specific emotional states.

Sentiment Analysis: By analyzing text data from conversations, social media, force and speed of keystrokes, or other sources, AI can gauge the sentiment behind the words and understand the emotional context.

Context Awareness: AI systems are designed to understand the context of interactions, considering factors like the user's environment, past interactions, and specific situations to respond appropriately.

Personalization: Artificial empathy involves tailoring responses based on the user's emotional state and preferences, creating a more personalized interaction.

Behavioral Mimicry: AI can be programmed to exhibit empathy behaviors, such as offering comforting words, showing understanding, or providing appropriate responses in emotional situations.

Applications of Artificial Empathy

Healthcare: AI systems with artificial empathy can support patients by providing emotional comfort, recognizing signs of distress, and improving the overall patient experience.

Customer Service: Chatbots and virtual assistants can use artificial empathy to handle customer inquiries more effectively by responding to the customer's emotional state.

Education: AI tutors can provide personalized support, recognizing when a student is frustrated or confused and adjusting their teaching methods accordingly.

Companionship: Social robots with artificial empathy can provide companionship to individuals, particularly the elderly or those with special needs, by engaging in empathetic interactions.

Benefits and Drawbacks

Artificial empathy can significantly enhance interactions between humans and AI systems but also presents challenges and ethical concerns.

Benefits

AI systems that recognize and respond to emotions create more natural and satisfying interactions, improving user satisfaction and engagement. Empathetic AI in customer service can handle queries more effectively, reducing frustration and increasing loyalty by providing more personalized and considerate responses. AI with artificial empathy can offer support in mental health contexts, providing immediate emotional recognition and support and assisting professionals by monitoring patient well-being. For elderly or isolated individuals, empathetic robots and virtual assistants can provide companionship, reducing feelings of loneliness and improving quality of life.  AI with empathy can be used in educational tools and training programs, providing supportive and encouraging feedback to learners and enhancing their motivation and learning outcomes.

Drawbacks

There is a risk that users may feel deceived if they discover that a machine simulated the empathy they experienced, potentially damaging trust in AI systems.  Emotion recognition often requires sensitive data, such as facial expressions and tone. This raises concerns about data privacy and security and the potential misuse of personal information. AI with artificial empathy could manipulate emotions for commercial or political purposes, exploiting users' emotional states to influence their decisions or behaviors. Over-reliance on empathetic AI for emotional support might reduce human-to-human interactions, potentially impacting social skills and relationships. The development and use of artificial empathy raise ethical questions about the boundaries of human-AI interaction, the role of AI in emotional contexts, and the potential for AI to replace human empathy in critical situations. Current AI systems might misinterpret emotions or provide inappropriate responses, leading to frustration or harm rather than support.

Balancing these benefits and drawbacks is crucial for developing and deploying artificial empathy in AI systems.

 

References

Asada, M. (2018). Artificial empathy. In K. Shigemasu, S. Kuwano, T. Sato, & T. Matsuzawa (Eds.), Diversity in Harmony – Insights from Psychology. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119362081.ch2

Galiniostech (2023, November 6). Robots in everyday life: A glimpse into the future. Medium. https://medium.com/@galiniostech/robots-in-everyday-life-a-glimpse-into-the-future-c966640a783d

Wright, J. (2023, January 9). Inside Japan’s long experiment in automating elder care: The country wanted robots to help care for the elderly. What happened? MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/01/09/1065135/japan-automating-eldercare-robots/

Do you live in a news desert?

By Lilian H. Hill

You may have heard of food deserts, areas where residents lack reliable access to healthy foods. However, the term news desert may need to be clarified.

A news desert is a rural or urban community that lacks access to local news coverage. News deserts are areas without a reliable local news source that offers significant and trustworthy reporting on important issues like health, government, and the environment. This absence leaves residents unaware of regional events, hindering their ability to participate fully as informed citizens. Questions about the actions of their local government, the candidates they should support, and the use of their tax dollars still need to be answered in these communities (Sullivan, 2022).

News deserts can occur for several reasons, including the closure of local newspapers, reductions in the workforce of existing media outlets, or the shift of media consumption to national or global platforms that do not cover local issues in depth (Abernathy, 2020; American Journalism Project, 2024). Abernathy (2020) wrote, "Many of the country’s 6,700 surviving papers have become ‘ghost newspapers’ – mere shells of their former selves, with greatly diminished newsrooms and readership. The loss of both journalists and circulation speaks to the declining influence of local newspapers, and raises questions about their long-term financial viability in a digital era” (p. 9). Research indicates that 70 million Americans currently reside in areas lacking sufficient local news to support grassroots democracy (Sullivan, 2022).

Importance of Local News

Local news is crucial for a healthy democracy; it helps communities understand the stakes in local elections, encourages political engagement through voting, contacting officials, and running for office, reduces political polarization, and holds public officials accountable (American Journalism Project, 2024).

Local news keeps residents informed about what is happening in their community, enabling them to make educated decisions about local issues, elections, and policies. It fosters community by highlighting local events, traditions, and stories that unite people. Local news can strengthen community bonds and provide a platform for local voices and perspectives.

Local news encourages civic engagement by informing residents about local meetings, public hearings, and other opportunities to participate in community governance. It can motivate people to participate in regional issues and volunteer for community projects. Local journalism highlights cultural and social issues within the community, promoting understanding and dialogue among diverse groups. It can shine a light on marginalized or underserved populations and their concerns.

Helping citizens understand how local government functions and how it impacts their daily lives is a function of local news. Local journalism holds local government officials, businesses, and other institutions accountable by investigating and reporting on their actions. It promotes transparency and exposes corruption, mismanagement, or other issues that might go unnoticed. A robust local news ecosystem can support local economies by promoting local businesses, events, and services. It can attract and retain residents who value being well-informed about their community.

Local news outlets often enjoy higher levels of trust than national or international media because they are closer to their audience. Trustworthy local news can counter misinformation and provide a reliable source of information for residents. A well-informed public is essential for the functioning of a healthy democracy. Local news gives citizens the information they need to participate in democratic processes. It ensures that local elections are fair and that elected officials are responsive to their constituents.

Consequences of News Deserts

Research indicates that the decline of local news hurts our democracy, contributing to polarization, decreased voter turnout, and reduced government accountability (Abernathy, 2000). The absence of local news coverage can have significant impacts on communities, such as:

 

·       Reduced Civic Engagement: Local news is crucial in informing citizens about local government, elections, and community issues. Without it, people may be less informed and engaged in civic activities.

 

·       Lack of Accountability: Local journalism often holds local government and institutions accountable. Without local media scrutiny, there may be less transparency and more opportunities for corruption or mismanagement.

 

·       Community Disconnect: Local news helps build community by highlighting local events, issues, and stories. With it, there may be a greater sense of connection among residents.

Prevalence of News Deserts

According to Northwestern University Medill School of Journalism and Media (2023), there are 204 counties in the U.S. without a local news outlet. Out of the 3,143 counties, more than half—1,766—have either no local news source or only one remaining, typically a weekly newspaper. The decline of local newspapers accelerated in 2023, averaging 2.5 closures per week, up from two per week the previous year. Over 130 newspapers closed or merged this past year. Since 2005, the U.S. has lost nearly 2,900 newspapers and will lose one-third of its total by 2024, leaving about 6,000, primarily weeklies (Northwestern Medill, 2023). Due to demographics and economics, Medill’s modeling indicates that 228 counties are at an elevated risk of becoming news deserts within the next five years.

 

Most of these "Watch List" counties are in high-poverty areas in the South and Midwest, often serving communities with significant African American, Hispanic, and Native American populations. In news deserts, the median income is lower, the number of people with college degrees is lower, and the poverty rate is higher (Abernathy, 2020). This is like the distribution of food deserts (Khatoon, 2024).

 

You can track news agencies that exist in your county through a service of the University of North Carolina’s Hussman School of Journalism and Media (2024). Their website features a searchable map allowing you to select your state and county. That search reveals the number of newspapers available in your county, alongside the county's median income. Below that, statistics for your state are provided, including population demographics, economic status, median income, and state and federal voting turnout and results.

 

Ways to Remedy News Deserts

News deserts, with limited access to local news and information, are a growing concern. Addressing this issue requires a multi-faceted approach. Here are some ways to remedy news deserts:

 

Nonprofit news organizations can help provide quality journalism without the pressure of generating profit. These organizations can receive funding from donations, grants, and partnerships.

Local community foundations and philanthropists can be encouraged to invest in local journalism, which can sustain and expand news coverage. Grant programs specifically aimed at supporting local news initiatives can be effective.

Public and Community Radio/TV can fill gaps in local news coverage. These outlets often provide in-depth local reporting and can serve as a vital source of information. Local businesses benefit by advertising with local news outlets.

University and Student Journalism can create opportunities for students to cover local news. This can provide practical experience for students while benefiting the community with additional news coverage.

Digital News Startups can offer flexible and cost-effective ways to deliver local news. These startups can leverage social media, newsletters, and other digital tools to reach audiences. Employing technology and data journalism to produce and distribute local news can make local news more efficient to deliver. Mobile apps, social media platforms, and online forums can be used to disseminate news and engage with the community.

Government and Policy Support can advocate for policies that support local journalism, such as tax incentives for local news organizations and public funding for journalism initiatives. They can also ensure that public notices and other essential information are accessible through local news outlets.

Community Engagement and Citizen Journalism promotes community engagement, and encouraging citizen journalism can help fill reporting gaps. Training programs for community members to report on local issues can empower residents and increase news coverage.

References

Abernathy, P. M. (2020). News deserts and ghost newspapers: Will local news survive? https://www.usnewsdeserts.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/2020_News_Deserts_and_Ghost_Newspapers.pdf

American Journalism Project (2024). The state of local news and why it matters. https://www.theajp.org/news-insights/the-state-of-local-news-and-why-it-matters/

Khatoon, H. (2023, November 1). What are food deserts and why do they exist? https://sentientmedia.org/food-desert/#:~:text=Food%20deserts%20exist%20across%20the,high%20density%20of%20food%20deserts.

Northwestern Medill (2023). More than half of U.S. counties have no access or very limited access to local news. https://www.medill.northwestern.edu/news/2023/more-than-half-of-us-counties-have-no-access-or-very-limited-access-to-local-news.html

Sullivan, M. (2022, June 29). Every week, two more newspapers close — and ‘news deserts’ grow larger. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/media/2022/06/29/news-deserts-newspapers-democracy?

UNC School of Journalism and Media (2024). Do you live in a news desert? https://www.usnewsdeserts.com?

Metaliteracy, Transliteracy, and New Literacies: The Same or Different?

 

By Lilian H. HIll

Over the last 18 months, we have written about many forms of literacy, including algorithmic, assessment, cultural, digital, emotional, financial, graphic, health, historical, information, literacy 4.0/5.0, news, organizational health, scientific, social media, and visual literacies. Other types of literacy still need to be tackled. Attaching the word literacy to so many ideas raises the question of whether basic literacy (the ability to read, write, comprehend, and do basic math) is being distorted.

While literacy is often defined as the ability to read and write, it can also be described as competence in a specific area. In that sense, literacy is a set of skills needed to function daily. As society becomes ever more complex, the literacy skills required to navigate life are expanding rather than being distorted. Functional literacy refers to the capacity of a person to engage in all activities which requires effective functioning. UNESCO defines functional literacy as “the capacity of a person to engage in all those activities in which literacy is required for effective function of his or her group and community and also for enabling him or her to continue to use reading, writing and calculation for his or her own and the community's development” (n.d.).

 

Categorical Terms for Literacy

The proliferation of novel descriptors of literacy has precipitated new terms used to describe categories of literacies: metaliteracy, trans literacy, and new literacies.

• Metaliteracy is an overarching framework encompassing various types of literacy, including digital, information, media, and visual literacies. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of different literacies and the importance of reflective, participatory, and ethical practices. It emphasizes the importance of understanding how to critically assess, produce, and share information in a collaborative and participatory digital environment. It goes beyond individual literacies to include metacognitive skills, encouraging learners to reflect on their learning processes and become proactive, ethical participants in collaborative online environments. 

• Transliteracy is the ability to read, write, and interact across various platforms, tools, and media. This concept goes beyond traditional literacy, typically focused on reading and writing in print formats, encompassing digital, visual, textual, and technological literacies. Transliteracy reflects the interconnected, multimodal nature of contemporary communication and information practices.
  

• New literacies refer to the skills and competencies required to navigate and engage with digital and networked environments effectively. This concept focuses on the specific abilities needed to use digital tools and platforms for communication, information retrieval, and content creation. These include digital literacy, media literacy, information literacy, visual literacy, and more. They emphasize the ability to locate, evaluate, create, and communicate information using various digital tools and platforms. Each new literacy addresses specific aspects of interacting with digital media and information technologies, such as understanding visual content (visual literacy) or critically analyzing media messages (media literacy).

 

Distinctions Among the Three Terms

A comparative table highlighting the characteristics of metaliteracy, transliteracy, and new literacies serves to delve more deeply into the distinctions among these three terms:

 

Characteristic	Metaliteracy	Transliteracy	New Literacies
Scope	Broad and inclusive, covering traditional, digital, and social media literacies.	Broad, but focused on navigating and integrating multiple forms of media and technology.	Narrow, focused on literacies specific to digital environments and new media.
Key Components	Critical thinking, metacognition, collaboration, and participatory learning.	Multimodal communication, cross-platform proficiency, interconnectedness, and adaptability.	Digital literacy, media literacy, and the ability to use and critique new technologies.
Focus	Developing self-awareness in learning processes and the ability to assess and adapt to various literacies.	Navigating and creating content across different media and platforms.	Using and understanding new digital tools and platforms, often in social contexts.
Skills Emphasized	Reflective learning, critical evaluation, ethical participation, and adaptability.	Multimodal literacy, digital and media literacy, critical thinking, and adaptability.	Navigating digital environments, creating and interpreting digital content, and critical thinking.
Examples of Practice	Collaborative research projects, critical analysis of information sources, and participatory digital citizenship.	Creating multimedia projects, engaging in social media, and integrating various forms of media in communication.	Blogging, social media participation, digital storytelling, and online collaboration.
Educational Approach	Encourages reflective practice, critical thinking, and the integration of various literacies.	Promotes the integration of different media and platforms in learning and communication.	Emphasizes the importance of digital tools and platforms in contemporary literacy practices.
Challenges Addressed	Information overload, the credibility of sources, ethical use of information, and the integration of multiple literacies.	Navigating complex, multimodal communication landscapes and adapting to new tools and media.	Keeping up with rapidly evolving technologies and ensuring equitable access to digital literacies.
Goals	To create self-aware, critically engaged, and adaptable learners.	To enable individuals to communicate effectively across multiple media and platforms.	To equip individuals with the skills needed to navigate and create in digital environments.

 

All three concepts recognize the evolving landscape of information and technology and emphasize the need for diverse, adaptable skills to navigate this environment effectively. Metaliteracy is a broader, integrative framework that combines various literacies and emphasizes critical thinking and active participation in online, collaborative communities (Badke, 2019). Transliteracy involves seamlessly and effectively understanding and using multiple forms of communication, including traditional print, digital media, and other emerging technologies. On the other hand, new literacies focus more narrowly on the specific digital skills and competencies needed to engage with digital environments effectively.

 

References

Badke, W. E. (2019). Metaliteracy, the framework, and all those other statements. Online Searcher, 43(5), 55-57.

UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Functional literacy. https://uis.unesco.org/en/glossary-term/functional-literacy