Artificial Empathy: Creepy or Beneficial?

Photo Credit: Pavel Danilyuk, Pexels

 

By Lilian H. Hill

 

Artificial empathy refers to the simulation of human empathy by artificial intelligence systems, allowing them to recognize, understand, and respond to human emotions in a way that appears empathetic. Empathy encompasses various cognitive and emotional abilities that allow us to understand the internal states of others. Consequently, developing artificial empathy represents both a symbolic goal and a significant challenge for artificial systems, especially robots, as they work towards creating a potentially symbiotic society (Asada, 2018).

Artificial empathy has significant implications for the development of social robots, customer service bots, and other AI applications that interact with humans on a personal level. Below are some key aspects, applications, benefits and drawbacks of artificial empathy.

Key Aspects of Artificial Empathy

Emotion Recognition: AI systems use sensors and algorithms to detect human emotions through facial expressions, voice tones, and body language. These data are processed to identify specific emotional states.

Sentiment Analysis: By analyzing text data from conversations, social media, force and speed of keystrokes, or other sources, AI can gauge the sentiment behind the words and understand the emotional context.

Context Awareness: AI systems are designed to understand the context of interactions, considering factors like the user's environment, past interactions, and specific situations to respond appropriately.

Personalization: Artificial empathy involves tailoring responses based on the user's emotional state and preferences, creating a more personalized interaction.

Behavioral Mimicry: AI can be programmed to exhibit empathy behaviors, such as offering comforting words, showing understanding, or providing appropriate responses in emotional situations.

Applications of Artificial Empathy

Healthcare: AI systems with artificial empathy can support patients by providing emotional comfort, recognizing signs of distress, and improving the overall patient experience.

Customer Service: Chatbots and virtual assistants can use artificial empathy to handle customer inquiries more effectively by responding to the customer's emotional state.

Education: AI tutors can provide personalized support, recognizing when a student is frustrated or confused and adjusting their teaching methods accordingly.

Companionship: Social robots with artificial empathy can provide companionship to individuals, particularly the elderly or those with special needs, by engaging in empathetic interactions.

Benefits and Drawbacks

Artificial empathy can significantly enhance interactions between humans and AI systems but also presents challenges and ethical concerns.

Benefits

AI systems that recognize and respond to emotions create more natural and satisfying interactions, improving user satisfaction and engagement. Empathetic AI in customer service can handle queries more effectively, reducing frustration and increasing loyalty by providing more personalized and considerate responses. AI with artificial empathy can offer support in mental health contexts, providing immediate emotional recognition and support and assisting professionals by monitoring patient well-being. For elderly or isolated individuals, empathetic robots and virtual assistants can provide companionship, reducing feelings of loneliness and improving quality of life.  AI with empathy can be used in educational tools and training programs, providing supportive and encouraging feedback to learners and enhancing their motivation and learning outcomes.

Drawbacks

There is a risk that users may feel deceived if they discover that a machine simulated the empathy they experienced, potentially damaging trust in AI systems.  Emotion recognition often requires sensitive data, such as facial expressions and tone. This raises concerns about data privacy and security and the potential misuse of personal information. AI with artificial empathy could manipulate emotions for commercial or political purposes, exploiting users' emotional states to influence their decisions or behaviors. Over-reliance on empathetic AI for emotional support might reduce human-to-human interactions, potentially impacting social skills and relationships. The development and use of artificial empathy raise ethical questions about the boundaries of human-AI interaction, the role of AI in emotional contexts, and the potential for AI to replace human empathy in critical situations. Current AI systems might misinterpret emotions or provide inappropriate responses, leading to frustration or harm rather than support.

Balancing these benefits and drawbacks is crucial for developing and deploying artificial empathy in AI systems.

 

References

Asada, M. (2018). Artificial empathy. In K. Shigemasu, S. Kuwano, T. Sato, & T. Matsuzawa (Eds.), Diversity in Harmony – Insights from Psychology. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119362081.ch2

Galiniostech (2023, November 6). Robots in everyday life: A glimpse into the future. Medium. https://medium.com/@galiniostech/robots-in-everyday-life-a-glimpse-into-the-future-c966640a783d

Wright, J. (2023, January 9). Inside Japan’s long experiment in automating elder care: The country wanted robots to help care for the elderly. What happened? MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/01/09/1065135/japan-automating-eldercare-robots/

Infodemics: How Misinformation and Disinformation Spread Disease

 

 

By Lilian H. Hill

 

An infodemic refers to an overabundance of information, both accurate and false, that spreads rapidly during an epidemic or crisis, making it difficult for people to find trustworthy sources and reliable guidance. The term is a blend of "information" and "epidemic". It highlights how the proliferation of information can parallel the spread of disease, creating additional challenges in managing the primary crisis. The term rose to prominence in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. During epidemics, accurate information is even more critical than in normal times because people need it to adjust their behavior to protect themselves, their families, and their communities from infection (World Health Organization, 2020).

 

Contradictory messages and conflicting advice can create confusion and mistrust among the public (Borges et al., 2022). An infodemic can intensify or lengthen outbreaks when people are unsure about what they need to do to protect their health and the health of people around them. The situation is so dire that the World Health Organization (2020) published guidance to help individuals, community leaders, governments, and the private sector understand some key actions they can take to manage the COVID-19 infodemic.

 

Characteristics of Infodemics

Infodemics result in more information than most people can process effectively, especially those with low health literacy. With growing digitization, information spreads more rapidly. Alongside accurate information, a significant amount of misinformation (false or misleading information shared without harmful intent) and disinformation (false information deliberately spread to deceive) is disseminated. Information spreads quickly, particularly through interconnected social media and digital platforms, reaching global audiences instantaneously. Infodemics often feature highly emotional, sensational, or alarming content that captures attention but may not be accurate or helpful.

 

Examples of Infodemics

Three global epidemics have occurred in recent memory, each accompanied by infodemics:

 

1. COVID-19 Pandemic: During the COVID-19 pandemic, an infodemic emerged with vast amounts of information about the virus, treatments, vaccines, and public health measures. This included a significant spread of misinformation and conspiracy theories.

 

2. Ebola Outbreaks: Past Ebola outbreaks have seen infodemics where misinformation about the disease’s transmission and treatments spread rapidly, complicating response efforts.

 

3. Zika Virus: The Zika virus outbreak was accompanied by an infodemic, with rumors and false information about the virus’s effects and prevention measures.

 

Understanding and addressing infodemics is crucial for effective crisis management and public health response, ensuring that accurate information prevails and supports informed decision-making by individuals and communities. With human encroachment on natural areas, the likelihood of future epidemics is high (Shafaati et al., 2023).

 

Consequences of Infodemics

The flood of conflicting information can cause confusion, anxiety, and stress, making it hard for individuals to know how to respond appropriately to the crisis. Trust in authorities, experts, and media can be eroded when people encounter inconsistent messages or feel they are being misled. Misinformation can lead to harmful behaviors, such as using unproven treatments, ignoring public health advice, or spreading conspiracy theories. The spread of false information can hamper public health responses and crisis management efforts, as resources may be diverted to combat misinformation instead of focusing solely on the crisis. The plethora of unreliable health information delays care provision and increases the occurrence of hateful and divisive rhetoric (Borges et al., 2022). Infodemics can exacerbate social divisions, as different groups may cling to varying sets of information and beliefs, leading to polarized views and conflicts.

 

Managing Infodemics

Another new term is “infodemiology,” a combination of information and epidemiology. Epidemiology, the study of the distribution of health and disease patterns within populations to use this information to address health issues, is a fundamental aspect of public health. It aims to minimize the risk of adverse health outcomes through community education, research, and health policy development (World Health Organization 2024). Infodemiology is the study of the flood of information and how to manage it for public health. Infodemic management involves systematically applying risk- and evidence-based analyses and strategies to control the spread of misinformation and mitigate its effects on health behaviors during health crises.

 

For example, in their systematic review of publications about health infodemics and misinformation, Borges et al. (2022) commented that “social media has been increasingly propagating poor-quality, health-related information during pandemics, humanitarian crises and health emergencies. Such spreading of unreliable evidence on health topics amplifies vaccine hesitancy and promotes unproven treatments” (p. 556). However, they noted that social media has also been successfully employed for crisis communication and management during emerging infectious disease pandemics and significantly improved knowledge awareness and compliance with health recommendations. For governments, health authorities, researchers, and clinicians, promoting and disseminating reliable health information is essential to counteract false or misleading health information spread on social media.

Image Credit: Anna Shvets, Pexels

 

Strategies for Combating Infodemics

For government officials, public health professionals, and educators, preparation is essential to prevent the next pandemic disaster (Shafaati et al., 2023). Strengthening public health services and investing in research and development for new medications and vaccines are crucial steps. Expanding access to education and resources in vulnerable communities is also necessary to enhance understanding and encourage preventive actions. Additionally, investing in international cooperation is vital to support countries at risk of outbreaks and provide economic assistance to those affected by pandemics.

 

1. Promoting Accurate Information: Authorities and experts must provide clear, accurate, and timely information. This includes regular updates from trusted sources like public health organizations.

 

2. Media Literacy: Enhancing public media literacy can help individuals critically evaluate the information they encounter, recognize reliable sources, and avoid sharing unverified claims.

 

3. Fact-Checking and Verification: Fact-checking organizations and platforms are crucial in verifying information and debunking false claims. Prominent placement of fact-checked information can help correct misconceptions.

 

4. Algorithmic Adjustments: Social media platforms and search engines can adjust their algorithms to prioritize credible sources and reduce the visibility of misleading content.

 

5. Collaboration and Coordination: Effective communication and coordination among governments, health organizations, media, and tech companies are essential to manage the flow of information and combat misinformation.

 

6. Public Engagement: Engaging with communities and addressing their concerns directly can build trust and ensure accurate information reaches diverse audiences. This may include town hall meetings, Q&A sessions, and community-specific communications.

 

Referencesre

Borges do Nascimento, I. J., Pizarro, A. B., Almeida, J. M., Azzopardi-Muscat, N., Gonçalves, M. A., Björklund, M., & Novillo-Ortiz, D. (2022). Infodemics and health misinformation: A systematic review of reviews. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 100(9):544-561. https://doi.org:10.2471/BLT.21.287654.

Shafaati, M., Chopra, H., Priyanka, Khandia, R., Choudhary, O. P., & Rodriguez-Morales, A. J. (2023). The next pandemic catastrophe: can we avert the inevitable? New Microbes and New Infections, 52, 101110. https://doi.org: 10.1016/j.nmni.2023.101110. 

World Health Organization (2020). Managing the COVID-19 Infodemic: A call for action. Author. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/334287/9789240010314-eng.pdf?sequence=1on

World Health Organization (2024). Let’s flatten the infodemic curve, https://www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/let-s-flatten-the-infodemic-curve

 

Digital Health Literacy Access and Skills

 

Image credit: Pexels, Telehealth

By Lilian H. Hill, PhD

Health literacy and digital health literacy are related but distinct ideas. This blog post is part of our series on different forms of literacy in which we provide definitions of health literacy, digital health literacy, and eHealth literacy. 

Health Literacy

To understand digital health literacy, a definition of health literacy is needed. In Healthy People 2030 (2023), the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) provided an updated definition of health literacy that has two components: personal health literacy and organizational health literacy:

• Personal health literacy is the degree to which individuals have the ability to find, understand, and use information and services to inform health-related decisions and actions for themselves and others.
• Organizational health literacy is the degree to which organizations equitably enable individuals to find, understand, and use information and services to inform health-related decisions and actions for themselves and others. (para. 3)

Begun in 1980 and occurring decennially, the Healthy People initiative sets priority areas to improve population health, provides implementation tools, and tracks progress. This updated definition acknowledges the responsibilities of health providers and systems to communicate effectively with patients of varying identities, language skills, and literacy levels. Older definitions only included reference to personal health literacy skills, burdening patients. 

Digital Health Literacy

Digital health literacy refers to accessing health information online and navigating and using digital or electronic health information and patient resources. It includes electronic patient portals, technology for telehealth visits, and using computers and mobile devices to access medical information and interact with healthcare teams.

The World Health Organization defines electronic health (eHealth) services as the cost-effective and secure use of information communication technologies to support health. Examples include electronic communication between patients and providers, electronic medical records, patient portals, and digital personal health records. A category of eHealth is mobile health (mHealth), including phones, tablets, and computers to use applications (apps), wearable monitoring devices, and texting services. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) defines eHealth literacy as the ability to evaluate health information from electronic sources and apply the knowledge gained to addressing or solving a health problem (CDC).

Digital health literacy involves skills including: 

• Accessing and using online medical scheduling platforms to make appointments.
• Using and navigating electronic health records and patient portals.
• Receiving text message reminders from healthcare providers.
• Receiving digital health information instead of handouts (for example, information about medication instructions for medication adherence).
• Obtaining results of medical or diagnostic tests online.
• Searching for and evaluating online health information. (Rural Health Information Hub, n.d.).
• Comparing options and enrolling in a health insurance plan on a government website.
• Searching online for healthy recipes to prepare for a family member with health conditions such as hypertension or diabetes.

Unfortunately, these skills depend on computer and mobile device access, digital tools experience, and a robust broadband network. For example, people with limited income and live in remote rural areas need help accessing broadband. Estimates of people lacking access range between 21 to 162 million (Stauffer et al., 2020). The U.S. government announced investing over 40 billion dollars to extend broadband access to all Americans (The White House, 2023). Access depends on having a data plan with broadband access, yet 40% of low-income households are not subscribed to any data plans. Relying on limited cell phone data or public Wi-Fi spots has limitations, including interruptions and a lack of security and privacy (Sieck, 2021). 

Many healthcare organizations have invested heavily in digital resources to support patient healthcare. Research indicates these tools “can foster greater patient engagement, better support for patients outside of the clinic visit, and can improve health outcomes” (Sieck, 2021, p. 1).

Digital health literacy has become so important to healthcare that it is now included as one of the social determinants of health, the conditions in the environments where people live, learn, work, and play that influence human health, functioning, and quality of life (Sieck et al., 2021). Other elements include: 

• safe housing, transportation, and neighborhoods;
• racism, discrimination, and violence;
• education, job opportunities, and income;
• access to nutritious foods and physical activity opportunities;
• polluted air and water; and 
• language and literacy skills (USHHS, 2023). 

As clinical care delivery is quickly being integrated with digital technologies, Sieck et al. (2021) recommend that healthcare organizations adopt digital inclusive strategies, including assessing patient literacy and access and partnering with community organizations to facilitate digital skills training and connectivity. 

References

• Improving Digital Health Literacy. Rural Health Information Hub. Retrieved from https://www.ruralhealthinfo.org/toolkits/health-literacy/2/digital-literacy 
• USHHS (2023, July 26). Healthy People 2030. Retrieved from https://health.gov/our-work/national-health-initiatives/healthy-people/healthy-people-2030 
• Sieck, C. J., Sheon, Amy, Ancker, J. S., Castek, J., Callahan, B. & Siefer, A. (2021). Digital inclusion as a social determinant of health. npj Digital Medicine 4, 52.; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-021-00413-8 
• Stauffer, A., de Wit, K., Read, A., & Kitson, D. ((2020). How States Are expanding broadband access: New research identifies tactics for connecting unserved communities. Pew Charitable Trust. Retrieved from https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/2020/03/broadband_report0320_final.pdf 
• U.S. White House (2023, February 26). Biden-⁠Harris Administration Announces Over $40 Billion to Connect Everyone in America to Affordable, Reliable, High-Speed Internet. Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/06/26/fact-sheet-biden-harris-administration-announces-over-40-billion-to-connect-everyone-in-america-to-affordable-reliable-high-speed-internet/ 

When Chatbots Provide Health Advice on the Internet

 

 

By Lilian H. Hill, PhD

There is so much health news in the media. It's in new reports, in social media, in books promoting one perspective or another, in magazines, and just about everywhere you look. Often the information seems contradictory and the headlines scream. Don’t eat fat! Avoid gluten and carbohydrates! Drink more water! Alcohol is bad for you, no wait … It’s good for you as long as it’s red wine. Adopt a plant-based, keto, or Mediterranean diet! There is just so much noise, it’s enough to make you give up and head to your favorite doughnut shop.

The health advice is not limited to diet. Instead, it extends to many other health decisions. Exercise until you sweat or until it hurts (otherwise known as no pain, no gain). Lift weights, do Pilates, Tai Chi, Yoga, walk 10,000 steps, and run marathons. Get outside and meditate! Avoid the sun, except oops, you need some sun to make Vitamin D and avoid depression. Vaccinate, or don’t vaccinate, depending on who you listen to.  Take supplements, take vitamins, take your medicines, and take off-label prescriptions to lose weight and overcome addictions. This list could go on and on.

With all the contradictory and confusing health information, many people have taken to consulting “Dr. Google” with both positive and negative effects. It is hard to discern what is valuable and applicable to your own questions and confronting your doctor with your internet pearls of wisdom may not go well. 

Reading Beyond the Headlines

 

It has been reported that people only read the headlines of news reports they encounter. While this can be a time-saving strategy, headlines do not provide enough information to understand the information provided. This episode focuses on reading beyond the headlines and exploring the reasons why people should read more of the news story. This is the first episode on Information Literacy category as part of the Adult Learning Exchange Virtual Community. Dr. Lilian H. Hill is the moderator of the online forum. Listen to the episode and join in the online forum.

 Listen to the Podcast

 

Information Literacy Episode 1 Transcript

References

Etzioni, R. (2020, February 13). Spinning science: Overhyped headlines, snarled statistics lead readers astray. Fred Hutch Cancer Center. Retrieved https://www.fredhutch.org/en/news/center-news/2020/02/spinning-science-overhyped-headlines-snarled-statistics-lead-readers-astray.html

Marquet, N. (2016, September 17). How to write a catchy headline in 1 Minute and 7 Seconds. Retrieved https://www.grammarly.com/blog/how-to-write-a-catchy-headline-in-1-minute-and-7-seconds/?gclid=Cj0KCQiApb2bBhDYARIsAChHC9vvWagplkp3jsuWN9LRfhSS0KBpEFBnbSeq2htwuyLBFlNhD3ovKjcaApnlEALw_wcB&gclsrc=aw.ds

Maybin, S. (2017). Busting the attention span myth. BBC World Service, More or Less. Retrieved https://www.bbc.com/news/health-38896790