Cultural Competence, Cultural Humility, and Intercultural Literacy

Image credit: Lillian H. Hill

By Lilian H. Hill, PhD

The multiplicity of terms related to effective intercultural interactions confirms the need for theory development and educational initiatives to develop people’s skills. Terms that have been used include cultural competence, cultural humility, intercultural literacy, cross-cultural and multicultural interaction, cultural literacy, intercultural competence, and global competence (Schliakhovchuk, 2021). This article examines three related concepts: cultural competence, cultural humility, and intercultural literacy.

Cultural Competence

Cultural competence is defined as the ability to understand one’s own cultural identity, understand and respect the cultural identities of others, and seek to understand how the various cultural realities may differ and intersect to form relationships of mutual respect, dignity, and service to others (Lekas, 2020). Within professional settings, cultural competence involves congruent attitudes, behaviors, and policies that serve intercultural interactions (Arredondo, 2013). To be culturally competent, a person must possess an internal desire to understand the various cultural beliefs and values of others, consider how these values affect life decisions, actions, and goals, and be able to integrate these into interpersonal relationships. For example, the picture above shows several people learning about the Japanese tea ceremony. The term has been used in adult education, teacher preparation, elementary and secondary education, higher education, counseling and psychology, social work, healthcare, and business.

Cultural competence is a large construct with knowledge, skill, behavioral, and attitudinal aspects. Cross et al. (1989) laid the basis for a cultural competence continuum, moving from cultural destructiveness through incapacity, blindness, pre-competence, competence, and cultural proficiency.  

Figure 1: Continuum of Cultural Competence (Cross et al.,1989)

The premise of this continuum is that individuals and organizations reflect various levels of awareness, knowledge, and skills vis-à-vis their relationship with cultural variables.  

Many of the earlier articles on cultural competence appeared to take an essentialist view of culture in which it becomes a list of characteristics to be memorized rather than a dynamic process of complex interactions (Gray & Thomas, 2006). This is illustrated by resources that, reminiscent of a cookbook, provide a cultural overview of specific groups and describe their behaviors and practices with recommendations for appropriate ways of interacting with them (see for example, see Salimbene, 2000). These resources made no allowance for differences within cultural groups. While people espousing cultural competence may have good intentions, the danger is that it can reduce people to a stereotype. Cultural competence also treats cultures as static and fails to recognize the multiplicity of identities a single individual may have. However, some voices challenge the orthodoxy of the cultural competence view rooted in cultural differences. Wear (2003) suggests educators should examine how culture is conceived. She uses Giroux's (2000) concept of "insurgent multiculturalism" which looks beyond the focus on subordinate groups' deficits, to examine the historic, semiotic, and institutional roots of racism. Over the years, a model of the higher levels of "proficiency" has emerged that acknowledges a greater recognition of societal inequities (National Center for Cultural Competence, 2007).

Critiques of Cultural Competence 

A critique of cultural competence is that cultural competence initiatives can stereotype and further marginalize people by assigning culture to people based on visible characteristics. Simplistic views of culture result in over-generalized representations of cultural identities and practices (Singer et al., 2015). Lekas et al. (2020) commented that:

Culture is not stagnant, but a changing system of beliefs and values shaped by our interactions with one another, institutions, media, and technology, and by the socioeconomic determinants of our lives. Yet, the claim that one can become competent in any culture suggests that there is a core set of beliefs and values that remain unchanged and that are shared by all the members of a specific group. This static and totalizing view of culture that connotes a set of immutable ideas embraced by all members of a social group generates a social stereotype. (p. 1)

Given the long-standing diversity of the U.S., it is arrogant and condescending to assume that a single person, institution, or system can become culturally competent in an all-inclusive manner. Everyone has their own intentional and unintentional racist, sexist, classist, and other biases, whether personally acknowledged or suppressed. Despite these biases, “the idea of cultural competency gives us a false sense of exemption from these human flaws in perception” that cause us to mistreat others (Cooks-Campbell, 2022, para. 22). Ignoring diversity does not adequately address people’s multiple identities or individuals whose identity is not immediately visible. 

Cultural Humility

Based on the flaws of cultural competence, some suggest that cultural humility should replace the term as a goal (Lekas, 2020; Tervalon & Murray-Garcia, 1998). Cultural humility is an approach to sociocultural differences that emphasizes intersectionality and understanding one’s implicit biases. This approach cultivates self-awareness and self-reflection, bringing a respectful willingness to learn to interpersonal interactions and attention to power dynamics. Reflecting upon one's culture is often a first step in becoming more aware of one's relationship with those culturally different from oneself (National Center for Cultural Competence, 2007). Self-reflection can be employed to identify how white privilege reinforces and maintains institutionalized racism (Lekas et al., 2020; Tyson, 2007). 

Intercultural Literacy

Intercultural literacy builds on the ideas of cultural competence but, much like cultural humility, adds concepts of critical reflection and self-examination. It also includes responsibility for contributing to constructive change within one’s culture. An interculturally literate person can draw on their background experience to comprehend a second culture, including its symbols and communications. Intercultural literacy requires analyzing dominant cultures as they interact with other cultures in global or cross-cultural partnerships. Intercultural literacy is “the competencies, understandings, attitudes, language proficiencies, participation, and identities necessary for effective cross-cultural engagement” (Heyward, 2002, p. 9). Yelich Biniecki and Stojanović (2023) note that cross-cultural interactions have become a daily experience for people and advocate that in “today’s internationalized work and education environments, developing the competencies, attitudes, and understandings to support cross-cultural encounters should be a priority” (p. 4). Preparation for internationalization is a goal of many higher education institutions (Yelich Biniecki & Stojanović, 2023) and businesses (Shliakhovchuk, 2021). Cross-cultural interactions are now the norm in a world with increased international interconnectedness, advanced communication technologies, frequent travel and migration, scholar and student exchanges, and displacement of populations due to conflict and devastation of natural environments (Schliakhovchuk, 2021). The current labor market requires workers with advanced skills, including soft skills that include communication, collaboration, and teamwork, all requiring the ability to work with others. 

Comparison of Related Concepts

Schliakhovchuk (2021) noted that discussion of international or global interactions emerged in the 1970s. Cultural competence was discussed as early as 1980, with cultural humility following soon after. Cultural literacy was described as early as the late 1980s, and, in the 21st century has become synonymous with “intercultural competence, intercultural literacy, CQ/cultural intelligence, or cultural mindfulness” (p. 234). The health professions intensively discussed cultural competence, and many training opportunities were offered. Over time, the reputation of cultural competence has waned because it assumes an impersonal, objective, and hypothetically superior person who is proficient in dealing with others. In contrast, intercultural literacy assumes more equality and parity among people involved in any intercultural relationship. Not only that, but intercultural literacy allows for self-examination, critical reflection, personal and cultural change, and the possibility of transformative learning.

References

• Arredondo, E. (2013). Cultural competence. In M. D. Gellman, M. D. & J. R. Turner (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine. Springer. doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_172
• Brandt, D., & Clinton, K. (2002). Limits of the local: Expanding perspectives on literacy as a social practice. Journal of Literacy Practice, 34(3), 337-356
• Cooks-Campbell, A. (2022, February 14). How cultural humility and cultural competence impact belonging. Retrieved from https://www.betterup.com/blog/cultural-humility-vs-cultural-competence
• Cross, T., Bazron, B., Dennis, K., & Isaacs, M. (1989). Towards a culturally competent system of care (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Child Development Center, CASSP Technical Assistance Center.
• Giroux H. (2000). Insurgent multiculturalism and the promise of pedagogy. In E. M. Duarte & S. Smith (Eds.), Foundational Perspectives in Multicultural Education (pp. 195-212). Longman.
• Gray, P. D., & Thomas, D. J. (2006). Critical reflections on culture in nursing. Journal of Cultural Diversity, 132(2), 76-82. 
• Hayes, E., & Colin III, S. A. J. (1994). Racism and sexism in the United States: Fundamental issues. In E. Hayes & S. A. J. Colin III (Eds.), Confronting racism and sexism. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No. 61 (pp. 5-16). Jossey-Bass.
• Heyward, M. (2002). From international to intercultural: Redefining the international school for a globalized world. Journal of Research in International Education, 1(1), 9−32. https://doi.org/10.1177/147524090211002
• Imel, S. (1998). Promoting intercultural understanding: Trends and Issues. Center on Education and Training for Employment. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED424451.
• Lekas, H. M., Pahl, K., & Fuller Lewis, C. (2020). Rethinking cultural competence: Shifting to cultural humility. Health Services Insights, 13, 1-4. doi: 10.1177/1178632920970580
• National Center for Cultural Competence. Georgetown University Center for Child and Human Development. Retrieved February 22, 2008 from http://www11.georgetown.edu/research/gucchd/nccc/
• Salimbene (2000). What language does your patient hurt in? A practical guide to culturally competent patient care. EMC Paradigm. 
• Shliakhovchuk, E. After cultural literacy: new models of intercultural competency for life and work in a VUCA world. Educational Review, 73(2), 229-250 doi:10.1080/00131911.2019.1566211
• Tervalon, M., & Murray-Garcia, J. (1998). Cultural humility versus cultural competence: A critical distinction in defining physician outcomes in multicultural education. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 9(2), 117-125. doi: 10.1353/hpu.2010.0233
• Tyson, S. Y. (2007). Can cultural competence be achieved without attending to white racism? Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 28: 1341-1344.
• U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Minority Health. National Standards for culturally and linguistically appropriate services for healthcare. Retrieved from http://www.omhrc.gov/assets/pdf/checked/finalreport.pdf
• Wang, W. (2007). Cultural competence of international humanitarian workers. Adult Education Quarterly, 57, 187-204.
• Wear D. (2003). Insurgent multiculturalism: rethinking how and why we teach culture in medical education. Academic Medicine, 78(6), 549-54. doi: 10.1097/00001888-200306000-00002
• Yelich Biniecki, S., & Stojanović, M. (2023). Fostering internationalization in adult education graduate programs in the United States: Opportunities for growth. Educational Considerations, 49(2). https://doi.org/10.4148/0146-9282.2364

 

Language and Culture

 

Image credit: Lilian Hill

By Lilian H. Hill

 

Some words are unique to regional culture, foods, and traditions. Language use can also be understood as an indicator of race, ethnicity, social class, and immigration status. While this can contribute to social disparities, the continuous integration of immigrants and their families contributes to a vibrant, ever-changing culture, and a varied lexicon or vocabulary (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2015). The process of immigration takes time and can be considered a two-way street in that it offers benefits to immigrants and the people of the country.

 

People who come to the U.S. from other countries will have an accent as will people who move from one region of the U.S. to another. Keep in mind that it is easy to believe that the way you speak is “normal” and that only other people have accents. The truth is that we all will have an accent when away from home, and some people who learned a second, third, or fourth language after the age of 12-14 will always have an accent in the newly acquired language. If they remain away from their place of origin for a significant length of time, they may develop an accent in their first language, too, because our speech is influenced by where we live.

 

It can be very frustrating to be asked where you are from, when returning to where you feel is home! This can even happen within a single language. I have lived in the southeastern U.S. for more than 39 years, and when I return home to English-speaking parts of Canada I am often asked where I am from. However, I retain some Canadian speech habits so in the South I am also asked where I am from. People can overcome accents with intensive speech therapy and coaching; however, this choice tends to be made by people who are very self-conscious.

 

Different cultural traditions within the country will have specific vocabulary and habits of speaking. While it is easy to make negative judgments when you hear someone speaking differently than you; in fact, different speaking traditions have their own vocabulary, grammar, and punctuation. In other words, they are recognized as languages. Your employer will want you to speak, read, and write Standard English, even if you may speak very differently among your friends and family.

 

Unfortunately, because of racism and discrimination, only some people are asked to “code-switch” from one tradition of speaking at home to Standard English at college or work. Code-switching refers to altering your speech style including its volume, speed, vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar as a way of fitting in. This can be accompanied by changing appearance, clothing styles, expression, and even body language to make other people feel more comfortable, counter common stereotypes, and gain employment (McLuney et al., 2019).

 

Creating New Words

Everyone creates new words and phrases (Anderson, 2018; Boyle, 2019). Several processes are involved: 

• Loanwords: borrowing words from other languages.

• Compound words: combining words to make a new one (heart + broken = heartbroken; sand + castle - sandcastle).
  
  
• Formation: combining words but letting parts drop off (e.g., sleazy – y = sleaze; dork + adorable  = adorkable).
  
  
• Repurposing: Taking a word from one context and applying it to a different one. For example, the crane, a long-necked bird, lent its name to mean a large lifting machine.
  
  
• Conversion: changing a word’s function from one part of speech to another (having a friend [noun] but also friending [verb] someone on Facebook).
  
  
• Derivation: adding prefixes or suffixes, e.g., preteen, hyperlink.
  
  
• Eponyms, meaning a name or place becomes the common description, e.g., sandwich named for the Earl of Sandwich or Kleenex instead of facial tissue.
  
  
• Abbreviations and acronyms (e.g., ICYMI stands for “In case you missed it.”).
  
  
• Nonce words:  words taken out of the air (e.g., bling (source unknown), or “on fleek,” coined by celebrity Kayla Newman.

 

Sometimes the meaning of a word changes altogether. For example, the word “nice” was used between 1300-1600 to mean silly, foolish, or ignorant. Then it acquired the meaning of meticulous, attentive, or sharp, while since the 18^th century, it has been used to mean agreeable and pleasant (Herman, 2015).

 

It also means that you can create a word that may end up in a dictionary if enough other people start using your word.

 

1. Creating new words allows you to convey specific meaning and express your creativity. New words attract your listeners or readers’ attention and help them focus on your meaning. For your new word to become recognized, other people must adopt and use it, so that the new word spreads.
   
   
2. Some authors create new languages and when the books become extremely popular, some of that language enters common vocabulary. Think of the invented game called Quidditch from the Harry Potter books written by J. K. Rowling or the species called Orcs from Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien.
   
   
3. New words are created to describe new experiences. Some of these experiences are the result of technological innovation. For example, the word telephone comes from tele, meaning far away, and phon, meaning sound. In other words, telephone is a compound word made up of two root words. Television, smartphones, and email are similar examples.
   
   
4. Our impatient world is always looking for speed and efficiency, so words are often shortened. So, phone is short for telephone, personal computers are called PCs or Apples, computer applications are known as apps, and so on.
   
   
5. To meet length limitations. For example, texting and tweets restrict the number of characters that can be used. This prompted the use of single characters used in place of words (R U ready?) and more extensive use of acronyms that then entered our spoken vocabulary.

 

 

This continual process of language reinvention will result in many new words being invented within our lifetime. Some other words will not be used as often and will fade away. 

 

References

Anderson, C. (2018). Essentials of linguistics. Retrieved from https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/essentialsoflinguistics/chapter/6-6-creating-new-words/

Boyle, A. (2016, February 4). How new words are born. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/media/mind-your-language/2016/feb/04/english-neologisms-new-words 

Herman, J. (2015, December 22). 11 words with meanings that have changed drastically over time. Retrieved from https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/61876/11-words-meanings-have-changed-drastically-over-time

How Language Changes Over Time

 

Image credit: Andrew De Leon, Unsplash

By Lilian H. Hill

 

All languages change. The English we speak today is very different from the English of the past. The way words are pronounced and spelled can change. The meaning of some words has changed over time. New words are added to the language on a regular basis. For example,  among new words in 2023, The Oxford English Dictionary added “porch pirate,” “deepfake,” and “antigodlin” (meaning something that is diagonal or askew) (Gutoskey, 2023).

 

Borrowing Words from Other Cultures

One way that languages change is by exposure to other languages. When people speaking different languages come in contact, they often ‘borrow’ words from each other (Anderson, 2018; Boyle, 2019). Good examples include words in English that came from other languages including croissant from French, karaoke from Japanese, avatar from Sanskrit, and loot from Hindi. Likewise, English words are used by speakers of other languages. You may have listened to a conversation in a language you don’t know and been surprised when you recognize a word or two, and then realized the people having the conversation are mixing in English words. 

 

Now that we are a global economy, more frequent word borrowing is occurring and words from many other countries are being adopted in English, including words from China, Japan, Latin American countries, and African countries. Sometimes words go back and forth between cultures. For example, the word “anime” was coined in Japan, but was originally based on the English word animation. Now we use the word anime to describe hand-drawn and computer animation originating, or designed to look like it, from Japan. When a word is adopted into English the word may transform its sound, spelling, or meaning. 

 

How Words Enter Dictionaries

Lexicographers, people who create dictionaries, pay attention to how people use words. Their job is not to decide on the meaning of words or to decide which words are “good” or “bad.” Instead, they continually learn about new words by observing the ways that people employ language. When a new word usage becomes common, it can be added to the dictionary. Likewise, briefly popular words that fall out of common use may be removed in future editions (Anderson, 2018; Boyle, 2019). 

 

Dictionaries are not an authority that exists outside of human control. Rather, they are created by human beings just like us. That means dictionaries have flaws and that they can change in response to how people use language daily. Like many other processes, online dictionaries are now in common use, and we are less likely to purchase them in printed form.

 

Regional Variations and Dialects

Even within the same language, there are variations in pronunciation and meaning of words used by people living in different times. If you studied a Shakespeare play, Beowulf, or read Chaucer (2023) in the original language during college you will be familiar with how different the language was in the past. For example, “Ful wys is he that kan himselven knowe” (from The Monk's Tale, one of 24 stories in Canterbury Tales published between 1387–1400) can be translated to “A wise person knows himself.” (Gender-neutral language was clearly not used during Chaucer’s time). You can guess some of the words in this quotation, but the spelling and even the sentence structure are unfamiliar today. 

 

 

Language also varies by location. Think of how differently English sounds in Canada, Britain, Australia, the U.S., India or Africa. There are regional differences in the ways that English is used in different locations of the U.S. such as New York City, Boston, and Atlanta. There are even variations used within single cities or regions. The accents in each city are distinctive and they are different dialects of the same language. You may be able to detect what part of a city someone comes from by the way they speak. A dialect is a regional variation of a language that has distinct pronunciations, grammar, and vocabulary. Instead of a single way to speak, write, and read English called American Standard English, linguists now recognize multiple dialects and ways of speaking (McWhorter, 2016). 

 

One reason for this variation is that people in these locations have different experiences and need words that describe them. When I moved from Canada to Florida, I was given a small humor book titled, How to Speak Southern by Steve Mitchell (1976). Some words are unique to the South, such as “fixin to,” (meaning planning to do something) or “mash the button” (meaning to push a button). Other words were explanations of pronunciations that differ from the way things are said in another region and some were words that are run together in pronunciations. For example, “jeet yet?” is a way of saying did you eat yet? There are other regional books of this nature. 

 

People speaking different dialects of the same language can usually understand each other and converse. Therefore, it is tempting to define the difference between a single language language and multiple dialects as being rooted in mutual intelligibility. Yet, there are dialects of English I’ve encountered that were very difficult to understand. Another point of clarification may revolve around the written form. We expect to see standard English used in books, journals, magazines, and government communications. In contrast, regional variations, when they do make it in print, are often found in quotation marks. Despite the difficulty of differentiating language and dialect, it is clear that there is a need for both terms so they will persist over time (McWhorter, 2016).

 

References

Anderson, C. (2018). Essentials of linguistics. Retrieved from https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/essentialsoflinguistics/chapter/6-6-creating-new-words/

  Boyle, A. (2016, February 4). How new words are born. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/media/mind-your-language/2016/feb/04/english-neologisms-new-words

Chaucer, G. (2023). The Monk’s Tale. Harvard’s Geoffrey Chaucer Website. Harvard University. Retrieved from https://chaucer.fas.harvard.edu/pages/monks-prologue-and-tale 

Gutoskey, E. (2023, March 21). 17 Terms That Just Got Added to the Oxford English Dictionary. Mental Floss. Retrieved from https://www.mentalfloss.com/posts/oxford-english-dictionary-new-words-spring-2023 

McWhorter, J. (2016, January ). What’s a Language, Anyway? The realities of speech are much more complicated than the words used to describe it. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/01/difference-between-language-dialect/424704/

Mitchell, S. (1976). How to speak Southern. Random House. 

McLuney, C. L., Robotham, K., Lee, S., & Smith, R. (2019, November 15). The costs of code-switching. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2019/11/the-costs-of-codeswitching 

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2015). The Integration of Immigrants into American Society. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/21746.

Cultural Literacy and Its Links to Awareness, Sensitivity, Competence, and Humility

 

By Lilian H. Hill

For several weeks now, we have been talking about different forms of literacy, beginning with basic literacy, “the ability to comprehend and create a variety of written texts, encompassing a knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, and discourse features alongside reading and writing skills” (Pegrum et al., 2014, p. 8). In this episode of Information Literacy, Dr. Lilian Hill discusses cultural literacy and its links to awareness, sensitivity, competence, and humility. Listen to the episode and join the online forum.

Cultural Literacy Continuum

 

 Listen to Podcast

 

 

Information Literacy Episode 20 Transcripts

 

 

References

ABC Life Literacy Canada (2023).  Cultural Literacy. Retrieved from https://abclifeliteracy.ca/cultural-literacy/ 

American Psychological Association (2021, April 8). Equity, diversity, and inclusion framework. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/about/apa/equity-diversity-inclusion/framework

APA Dictionary of Psychology (2023). Cultural sensitivity. Retrieved from APA Dictionary of Psychology

Miller, R. (2018, May 25). Cultural humility vs. cultural competence. Retrieved from https://inclusion.uoregon.edu/what-cultural-humility-basics

National Committee for Quality Assurance (2016). A practical guide to implementing the national clas standards: For racial, ethnic and linguistic minorities, people with disabilities and sexual and gender minorities. Retrieved https://www.cms.gov/About-CMS/Agency-Information/OMH/Downloads/CLAS-Toolkit-12-7-16.pdf

Pegrum, M., Hockley, N., & Dudeny, G. (2014). Digital literacies. Routledge.

Algorithms and Culture: A Complex Concept

 

As algorithms permeate many aspects of everyday life. Algorithms influence culture. On this episode, Dr. Lilian Hill discusses the relationship of algorithms and culture. Listen to the episode and join in the discussion.

Listen to the Podcast

Information Literacy Episode 5 Transcript

 

References

Carah, N. (2017, August 16). Algorithmic culture and machine learning. http://nicholascarah.com/log/2017/8/15/algorithmic-culture-and-machine-learning

NBC. (2023 January 1). Meet the Press - January 1, 2023. https://www.nbcnews.com/meet-the-press/meet-press-january-1-2023-n1302274  

Seaver, N. (2017, November 9). Algorithms as culture: Some tactics for the ethnography of algorithmic systems. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2053951717738104

Striphas, T. (2015). Algorithmic culture. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 18(4-5). https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1367549415577392