The Struggle for Memory: Historical Erasure, Whitewashing, and Narrative Authority

 

By Lilian H. Hill

 

Historical erasure refers to the deliberate or unintentional exclusion of certain events, people, or perspectives from the historical record. Authoritarian politicians engage in historical erasure to avoid confronting past, ongoing, and future injustices. Assaults on historical truth serve a purpose. They prevent people from understanding that discrimination, especially sexism and racism, is systemic and has been maintained through centuries of law, policy, and violence (Walk, 2025). The erasures also deny people access to models of courage and organized resistance, such as Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. Stanley (2024) states that authoritarian regimes often view historical accuracy as threatening because it challenges the cultural narratives they promote to maintain control and legitimacy.

 

Historical erasure results in systematic neglect of marginalized voices, including Indigenous peoples, enslaved individuals, religious minorities, women, LGBTQ+ communities, and colonized populations in textbooks, public monuments, and official histories. For example, history education may omit the contributions of Black Americans to the civil rights movement or the widespread violence against Indigenous populations in settler colonial states. Women’s contributions are diminished or attributed to men. Similarly, working-class uprisings and labor movements are often excluded from mainstream historical narratives.

 

Historical whitewashing and erasure are interconnected processes that involve the distortion, omission, or manipulation of historical facts, often to uphold dominant narratives while marginalizing or silencing others. Whitewashing is a specific form of distortion in which troubling aspects of history, particularly those involving white or colonial powers, are sanitized or reinterpreted to make them appear more acceptable or less violent. Historical whitewashing sends a clear message that only white men are recognized as belonging. This can include downplaying the brutality of slavery or even suggesting it benefited those enslaved, portraying Christopher Columbus as a heroic explorer while omitting his role in the exploitation of Indigenous peoples, or reframing colonialism as a ‘civilizing mission’ rather than a system of exploitation and oppression. Contemporary examples of “rooting a current policy in a made-up history” (Cox Richardson, 2025) include efforts to ban discussions of systemic racism in schools by framing the United States as having always been a perfectly just society. Another example is attempts to justify voter suppression laws by referencing a false narrative of widespread election fraud in American history. Supporters argue that historical erasure and whitewashing preserve history, while critics view it as an attempt to glorify a divisive and oppressive past.

 

Scholars and activists warn that narratives of nonwhite history are being erased at an alarming pace, pointing to examples like the painting over of the Black Lives Matter mural in Washington, D.C., and the temporary removal of Navajo Code Talkers' stories from federal websites (Kwong, 2025). Historical whitewashing sends a clear message that only white men are recognized as belonging. Recent actions include the removal of portrayals of African Americans, women, and LGBTQ individuals from public venues and the terminations of high-profile military leaders who are non-white, LGBTQ, or female. Controversial efforts to bring back public displays like monuments related to the Civil War and to rename military installations honoring Confederate leaders have sparked debate because such figures are associated with defending slavery and opposing the U.S. government. Supporters argue that historical erasure and whitewashing preserve history, while critics view it as an attempt to glorify a divisive and oppressive past. 

 

Historical erasure and whitewashing are not restricted to the United States. Stanley (2024) notes that authoritarian regimes often discourage citizens from challenging idealized versions of national history and impose severe consequences on those who resist. It is no coincidence that educational institutions, both locally and globally, are contested spaces, where efforts to challenge entrenched hierarchies may be silenced through intimidation or force. To maintain control, authoritarian movements seize control of educational institutions in their attempt to erase unflattering history, and with it, the culture of critical inquiry that fuels social and political advancement. In contrast, democracies rely on schools and universities to safeguard collective memory, particularly of progress driven by protests, social movements, and uprisings.

 

Confronting Historical Erasure and Whitewashing

Historical literacy encompasses a set of skills that enable individuals to analyze and comprehend the past critically. When histories of marginalized individuals are omitted from educational curricula, public records, or institutional narratives, it contributes to a broader culture of silence and invisibility. This erasure reinforces systems of discrimination that persist in contemporary society. Such discrimination affects individuals’ mental health, career advancement, and sense of belonging, while also undermining organizational culture, inclusivity, and productivity. Addressing historical erasure and current inequities is essential to fostering a more equitable and truthful society.

 

Both historical erasure and whitewashing have profound consequences. They shape collective memory and identity, influence public policy, and contribute to the continued marginalization of already oppressed communities. When the truth is hidden or distorted, injustices are perpetuated, critical perspectives are suppressed, and the public’s ability to engage thoughtfully with the past is compromised. As Haitian anthropologist and historian Michel-Rolph Trouillot argued in Silencing the Past (1995), history is inseparable from power; those who control historical narratives often shape how societies understand themselves and others. Addressing these practices requires recovering suppressed narratives, teaching multiple perspectives, confronting uncomfortable truths, and critically engaging with historical sources. This is not about rewriting history, but rather about telling a more complete, honest, and inclusive version of it.

 

Confronting historical erasure and whitewashing requires a deliberate effort to acknowledge and preserve marginalized histories that have long been silenced or distorted. Historical erasure often manifests in the exclusion of nonwhite, Indigenous, and women’s narratives from educational curricula, public memorials, and media portrayals. Whitewashing involves the reinterpretation or sanitization of history to favor dominant cultural perspectives, often minimizing or ignoring systemic injustices (Brown & Brown, 2010). These practices not only obscure the lived experiences and contributions of historically oppressed communities but also hinder our collective ability to understand and address contemporary social inequalities. Education plays a pivotal role in reversing these trends by promoting inclusive histories and encouraging critical inquiry that challenges dominant narratives (King et al., 2021).

 

Efforts to confront historical erasure must extend beyond the classroom to encompass broader societal commitments, including public policy, museum representation, and media accountability. For instance, community-led initiatives to rename buildings, revise school curricula, or commission public art that reflects diverse histories are essential in reshaping public memory and identity (Tuck & Yang, 2012). Additionally, resisting whitewashing means engaging with uncomfortable truths, including colonization, slavery, and racial violence, rather than erasing or downplaying them for the sake of national unity or convenience. Through active remembrance and inclusive storytelling, societies can strive toward a more equitable and truthful historical record, one that honors all voices, fosters social healing, and promotes civic engagement.

 

References

Brown, K. D., & Brown, A. L. (2010). Silenced memories: An examination of the sociocultural knowledge on race and racial violence in official school curriculum. Equity & Excellence in Education, 43(2), 139–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665681003719590

Cox Richardson, H. (2025, June 27). Blogpost. https://www.facebook.com/heathercoxrichardson

King, L. J., Swartz, E. E., & Campbell, A. (2021). Teaching Black history as Black liberation. Theory & Research in Social Education, 49(4), 526–553. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2021.1946365

Kwong, E. (2025, March 29). Scholars say Trump administration is trying to erase America's non-white history. https://www.npr.org/2025/03/29/nx-s1-5333846/scholars-say-trump-administration-is-trying-to-erase-americas-non-white-history

Stanley, J. (2024). Erasing history: How Fascists Rewrite the Past to Control the Future. Atria/One Signal Publishing.

Tuck, E., & Yang, K. W. (2012). Decolonization is not a metaphor. Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society, 1(1), 1–40. https://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/des/article/view/18630

Top of Form

Bottom of Form

Trouillot, M.-R. (1995). Silencing the past: Power and the production of history. Beacon Press.

VanSledright, B. A. (2008). Narratives of nation-state, historical knowledge, and school history education. Review of Research in Education, 32(1), 109–146. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X07311065

Walk, T. (2025, April 6). The Trump Administration’s assaults on Black history:

Curtailing truth obscures racism’s historic legacy. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2025/04/10/trump-administrations-assaults-black-history

 

How Healthy is Civic Literacy in the U.S.?

 

 

By Lilian H. Hill

 

Do you remember:

·      How many senators serve in the Senate?

·      How many members are in the U.S. House of Representatives?

·      What is the difference between the House and the Senate?

·      How many justices sit on the U.S. Supreme Court?

o   What are their responsibilities?

·      How many branches of government are there?

o   What are their responsibilities?

·      What is the Constitution?

o   Why is it important?

 

You would have learned the answers to these questions if you took Civics in school or studied to pass the test to become a naturalized citizen of the United States. The answers to these questions are all part of the necessary knowledge of civic literacy for American citizens. Other countries have their own required knowledge for civic participation.

 

Definition and Importance

Civic literacy refers to the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that enable individuals to participate actively and responsibly in civic and democratic life. It encompasses knowledge and understanding of government structures, laws, rights, and responsibilities and the ability to analyze social and political issues critically. Civic literacy is not just about knowing how government works; it also includes skills such as:

 

• Media literacy: evaluating sources of information and recognizing misinformation.
• Critical thinking: assessing policies, political discourse, and legal frameworks.
• Civic engagement skills: advocacy, voting, and participating in community initiatives.

 

A civically literate population is essential for a healthy democracy, social progress, and an empowered citizenry. Unfortunately, time dedicated to civic education in American public schools began to decline in the 1960s. For many decades, neither the federal nor state governments have prioritized civics. Additionally, instructional time for civics has decreased as an unintended consequence of shifting educational priorities, such as the emphasis on STEM subjects and policies like No Child Left Behind (Sandra Day O’Connor Institute, 2024).

 

General Population Findings

Recent studies indicate a concerning deficient civic literacy among Americans, reflecting a widespread lack of understanding of fundamental governmental structures and processes.

 

For example, a 2024 study from the U.S. Chamber of Commerce Foundation highlights a troubling reality as America nears its 250th anniversary: the nation's civic knowledge is significantly lacking. The national survey, which gathered responses from 2,000 registered voters, reveals that over 70% of respondents failed a basic civics quiz covering topics such as the three branches of government, the number of Supreme Court justices, and fundamental democratic processes (these are all part of the U.S. Citizenship test). Only half could correctly identify which branch of government is responsible for turning bills into laws. Interestingly, while two-thirds reported taking civics in high school, only 25% felt “very confident” in explaining how the U.S. government functions.

 

The American Bar Association conducted its annual Survey of Civic Literacy for five years. The 2024 Survey highlighted that while 37% of respondents believe the general public should safeguard democracy, nearly two-thirds felt the public is “not very informed” or “not at all informed” about how democracy functions (Smith, 2024).

 

A survey administered to 3,026 undergraduate students by the American Council of Trustees and Alumni (ACTA) found that only 31% of college students could correctly identify James Madison as the Father of the Constitution. Additionally, 60% were unaware of the term lengths for U.S. House and Senate members, and just 27% knew that the Vice President serves as the President of the Senate. Further, ACTA findings indicated that approximately one-third of students could not identify the current Speaker of the House, and many incorrectly believed that the Supreme Court is mandated to have nine justices. ACTA President Michael Poliakoff said,

 

The dismal results of our survey show that current students and recent college graduates have little idea of the American past or its core principles and values, no guide to take them through the roiling controversies facing us today or to enable them to defend and protect the free institutions that are the glory of our nation and an inspiration to the world. They cannot uphold what they do not comprehend. There is so much to be proud of as we near the 250^th anniversary of our independence and the birth of our democratic republic. But being the world’s oldest democracy is no guarantee for the future of our democratic republic (para. 4).

 

The Importance of Civic Literacy

Civic literacy offers five distinct advantages:

 

1.    Empowers Informed Decision-Making

A key aspect of civic literacy is equipping individuals with the knowledge to make informed decisions about governance and societal issues. It helps citizens understand political candidates’ platforms, government policies, and legislative changes. Civic literacy enables people to critically evaluate sources of news and distinguish between facts, opinions, and propaganda. It fosters awareness of economic, environmental, and social issues, allowing individuals to make responsible decisions in both personal and public life. Without civic literacy, individuals may be more susceptible to misinformation, manipulation, and political rhetoric that does not align with their best interests.

 

2.    Strengthens Democracy

A functioning democracy relies on the active participation of its citizens. Civic literacy helps to encourage voter participation and engagement in elections; promote accountability by ensuring people understand their rights to petition, protest, and hold leaders responsible; and support the rule of law by ensuring citizens are aware of legal rights, civic duties, and due process. When citizens are uninformed or disengaged, democratic institutions weaken, and the risk of authoritarianism, corruption, and political apathy increases.

 

3.    Promotes Social Responsibility and Community Engagement

Civic literacy fosters a sense of shared responsibility for the well-being of society. This includes encouraging volunteerism, community service, and grassroots activism; understanding and advocating for marginalized or underrepresented communities; and taking part in local governance, such as attending town hall meetings, joining advisory boards, or contributing to civic initiatives. By recognizing how personal actions impact the community, individuals become proactive in solving societal challenges, such as poverty, climate change, and human rights violations.

 

4.    Enhances Critical Thinking and Civil Discourse

In an era of social media and rapid information dissemination, the ability to critically analyze information is crucial. Civic literacy helps individuals engage in respectful, fact-based debates on complex social and political issues; encourages open-mindedness and respect for diverse perspectives; reduces polarization by promoting evidence-based discussions rather than emotional or partisan reactions. This contributes to a more informed and respectful public dialogue, which is essential for social cohesion and policymaking.

 

5.    Encourages Advocacy and Active Civic Engagement

Civic literacy empowers individuals to advocate for meaningful change. It provides knowledge of the legislative process, helping citizens influence policies and laws; skills to organize and mobilize communities around critical issues; and human rights and social justice awareness, encouraging activism to address inequality and discrimination. Civically literate individuals play a crucial role in shaping policies that affect their lives and communities through petitions, protests, and public discussions.

 

Civic literacy is foundational to a thriving, equitable, and resilient society. It empowers individuals to make informed choices, strengthens democratic institutions, fosters community involvement, and cultivates the skills necessary for respectful dialogue and effective advocacy. As our world's challenges grow more complex, the need for an engaged, informed citizenry becomes ever more urgent. Investing in civic education prepares students and adults for lifelong participation in a democratic society where their voices and actions matter.

 

References

Smith, M. (2024, May 1). The link between civics literacy and our threatened democracy. American Bar Association. https://www.americanbar.org/news/abanews/aba-news-archives/2024/05/link-between-civics-and-democracy/

Nietzel, M. T. (2024, July 17). New survey reveals low level of civics literacy among college students. American Council of Trustees and Alumni. Forbes. https://www. goacta.org/2024/07/new-survey-reveals-low-level-of-civics-literacy-among-college-students/?utm_source=chatgpt.com

Sandra Day O’Connor Institute for American Democracy (2024, September). When and why did America stop teaching civics? https://oconnorinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/When-and-Why-Did-America-Stop-Teaching-Civics_.pdf

U.S. Chamber of Commerce Foundation (2024, February 12). New study finds alarming lack of civic literacy among Americans. https://www.uschamberfoundation.org/civics/new-study-finds-alarming-lack-of-civic-literacy-among-americans

All You Need to Know about Banned or Challenged Books

By Lilian H. Hill

 

Some of my favorite books when I was growing up were Call of the Wild (Jack London, 1903), Are you there God? It me, Margaret (Judy Blume, 1970), and A Wrinkle in Time (Madeleine L’Engle, 1963). They have all been banned or challenged. Other banned books include classics we read in high school including Of Mice and Men (John Steinbeck, 1937), The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (Mark Twain, 1876), To Kill a Mockingbird (Harper Lee, 1960), and Lord of the Flies (William Golding, 1954). Many have read In the Night Kitchen (Maurice Sendak, 1970), Where’s Waldo? (Martin Handford, 1987), or the Junie B. Jones series (Barbara Park, 1992-2011) to their children, and their children may have read the Goosebumps (R.L. Stine, 1992-1997) or the Captain Underpants (Dav Pilkey, 1997-2015) series. However, you may never have realized the books were so “dangerous” that they would be banned.  

All of these books are on the Top 100 Banned Books list. There are several lists of the Top 100 banned books. The American Library Association has been keeping track through their Office of Intellectual Freedom (American Library Association, 2019), but they have only been doing so since 1990. Other lists such as the one found on Wikipedia contain some of the older books I mention here. 

 

Why are these books being banned?

As of 2020, reasons for banning books include: 

• Sexual content (92.5%) 

• Offensive language (51.5%) 

• Unsuitable for age group (49%) 

• Religious viewpoint (26%) 

• LGBTQIA+ (23.5%) 

• Violence (19%) 

• Racism (16.5%) 

• Use of illegal substances 

• “Anti-family” content (7%) 

• One of the silliest reasons for banning a children’s book was for encouraging poor spelling because it used silly spellings. (American Library Association, 2019)  

   
  

The reason these percentages don’t appear to make sense is that books are often challenged for multiple reasons. The American Library Association (2019) estimated that more than 82% of challenges remain unreported. They compared results from several independent studies of third-party Freedom of Information Act requests documenting school and library book censorship with the information in its database.

 

What is the difference between a challenge and a book ban?

A book challenge occurs when a book is questioned. In response, portions of a book’s content may be redacted, its circulation restricted, or relocated to an adult section of a library. When a book that was available is removed from the collection completely, it would be considered banned (Haupt, 2022). It means a book is removed from school curricula and possibly public libraries because someone has objected to its content (VanDenburgh, 2022). 

 

Where do these challenges come from? 

Many of these challenges come not from concerned parents, but instead from advocacy organizations with a political intent. These advocacy organizations have made censorship of certain books and ideas in schools a large part of their mission. Unfortunately, many of the book challenges are by authors that have had to fight hard to be published including books by and about people of color, people who are LGBTQIA, and people who have suffered violence or abuse. Even books that provide clear and medically appropriate sex education are under attack. In other words, these are books that can help normalize human experience, represent the full range of human experience, and answer people’s questions. Friedman and Johnson (2022) comment that these actions are deeply undemocratic and that it is: 

 

having multifaceted, harmful impacts: on students who have a right to access a diverse range of stories and perspectives, and especially on those from historically marginalized backgrounds who are watching their library shelves emptied of books that reflect and speak to them; on educators and librarians who are operating in some states in an increasingly punitive and surveillance-oriented environment with a chilling effect on teaching and learning; on the authors whose works are being targeted; and on parents who want to raise students in schools that remain open to curiosity, discovery, and the freedom to read. (para. 8) 

How many of these organizations exist?

Estimates indicate that there are more than 700 of these organizations, and that more are being created.  The proliferation of advocacy organizations responsible for book bans and challenges is a very recent phenomenon (Friedman & Johnson, 2022). The organizations operate at the regional, state, and national levels and are loosely coordinated in sharing lists of books to question and attack. Some organizations' members use tactics like appearing in large numbers at school board meetings, creating arbitrary rating systems for libraries, accusing school officials of providing books that are “pornographic” or that “groom” students, filing criminal complaints, or in extreme cases harassing librarians online, in public, and in their homes. There have been instances of people filing the complaints who did not have children enrolled in school.  

 

Are these organizations acting alone? 

Approximately 40% of these actions are connected to legislative initiatives or enacted legislation (American Library Association, 2019). Legislation is being enacted in multiple states including Utah, Missouri, Mississippi, Michigan, Texas, Pennsylvania, and Florida. Politicians are actively condemning critical race theory and the idea of wokeness, although there is doubt that they fully understand these concepts. The politicians are against books that center racism or discuss sexuality and gender identity.  

Recent Mississippi legislation would affect a ban on digital books that are “sexually oriented.” It references another bill that provides an extremely broad definition of what sexually oriented means. The new bill is intended to protect minors from “sexually illicit material”; however, because it will control school and public libraries, it will also deprive adults of content. Apparently, the inclusion of adults will be fixed but now Senate Bill No. 2346 was approved 82-32 (Pittman, 2023). Legislators argued that adults can still purchase the books they desire, but this statement ignores people without the means do that. And Mississippi has a lot of rural, low-income, and poor people.  

 

So far, the bill only references digital material, but it is easy to imagine that it won’t take long before print books are on the radar. The legislation has gone so far that one Mississippi legislator wondered if they had effectively banned the Bible (Pittman, 2023). Protestors, including the Executive Director of the Human Rights Campaign, registered concerns about any initiative that would limit information for young people (Pittman, 2023). 

How do these initiatives relate to politics?

These actions do not stand alone. Instead, they are part of a larger social phenomenon of polarizing politics known as culture wars. The American Library Association reported that the challenges were targeted at “the voices of the  marginalised… books and resources that mirror the lives of those who are gay, queer or transgender, or that tell the stories of persons who are Black, Indigenous or persons of colour.” The challenges are becoming much more frequent and Suzanne Nossel, the CEO of the free-speech organization PEN America,   comments that it is “part of a concerted effort to try to hold back the consequences of demographic and social change by controlling the narratives available to young people.”  

 

Art Spiegelman, author of Maus, the only graphic novel to win a Pulitzer Prize in 1992, believes that anyone should be able to read anything. He would prefer that children read a book in a classroom or library with informed adults who can provide guidance than read the book by themselves if they found them on their parents' bookshelves. His graphic novel was threatened with being removed from a school  library in Tennessee. A local comics shop learned of the ban and sought donations to purchase remaining copies of the book to students in the U.S., shipped with a study guide written by a local teacher. 

 

Actions of this nature should spur us all into action.  

 

References  

 

American Library Association (2019). Top 100 Most Banned and Challenged Books: 2010-2019. Retrieved https://www.ala.org/advocacy/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/decade2019

Armistead, C. (2022, March 22). ‘It’s a culture war that’s totally out of control’: the authors whose books are being banned in US schools. The Guardian. Retrieved https://www.theguardian.com/books/2022/mar/22/its-a-culture-war-thats-totally-out-of-control-the-authors-whose-books-are-being-banned-in-us-schools 

Friedman & Johnson (2022, September 19). Banned in the USA: The growing movement to censor books in schools. Retrieved https://pen.org/report/banned-usa-growing-movement-to-censor-books-in-schools/ 

Haupt, A. (2022, June 19). The rise in book bans, explained. Washington Post. Retrieved https://www.washingtonpost.com/books/2022/06/09/rise-book-bans-explained/  

Pittman, A. (2023, March 9). Ban On Library Books Depicting ‘Homosexuality,’ ‘Lesbianism’ Passes Mississippi House. Mississippi Free Press. Retrieved https://www.mississippifreepress.org/31797/ban-on-library-books-depicting-homosexuality-lesbianism-passes-mississippi-house#:~:text=Mississippi%20could%20ban%20digital%20books,Bill%20No.%202346%20on%20Wednesday 

"Top 10 Most Challenged Books Lists", American Library Association, March 26, 2013. http://www.ala.org/advocacy/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/top10 (Accessed March 16, 2023) Document ID: 8417fa9e-ceff-4512-aca9-9fbc81b8bd81 

VanDenburgh, B. (2022, June 29). Book bans are on the rise. What are the most banned books and why? USA Today. Retrieved https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/books/2022/06/29/banned-books-explained/7772046001/  

Wikipedia (n.d.). List of most commonly challenged books in the United States. Retrieved https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_commonly_challenged_books_in_the_United_States