By Lilian H. Hill
"Those who
cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it."
— George Santayana, The Life of Reason: The Phases of Human Progress
(1905)
This quote is often paraphrased as, “Those who do not learn history are doomed to repeat it.” It emphasizes the idea that historical understanding is essential to learn from past errors to prevent their recurrence, a central argument for promoting historical literacy in civic education. Historical literacy is more than memorizing names, dates, and events. It involves understanding how knowledge about the past is constructed, how evidence is used to support interpretations, and how history influences the present and future. This form of literacy is essential for developing critical, informed, and empathetic citizens in a democratic society.
Core Components of Historical Literacy
Historical literacy encompasses a range of skills that enable individuals to think critically about the past. Chronological thinking involves understanding historical time, sequencing events, and recognizing patterns of change and continuity over time (National Center for History in the Schools [NCHS], 1996). Historical comprehension refers to the ability to interpret primary and secondary sources, distinguish between fact and interpretation, and identify the perspective and context of each source (Wineburg, 2001). Historical analysis and interpretation include comparing different historical narratives, analyzing cause and effect, and considering multiple perspectives and contingencies (Seixas & Morton, 2013). Historical empathy involves understanding the beliefs, values, and motivations of people in the past while avoiding presentism, the tendency to interpret past events through the lens of contemporary norms and values (Endacott & Brooks, 2013).
The use of historical evidence requires evaluating sources for credibility, reliability, bias, and corroboration to construct informed interpretations (Wineburg, 1991). Historical significance refers to judging which events, people, or developments are important and understanding the reasons why they matter within broader historical contexts (Seixas, 1994). Lastly, historical revisionism entails the reinterpretation of past events, often to incorporate new evidence or perspectives and develop more nuanced understandings of the past. While this process is a legitimate part of historical scholarship, the term is sometimes misused to describe intentional distortions or denial of historical facts (Evans, 1997).
Historical Literacy as a Civic Tool
Historical literacy empowers individuals to navigate contemporary issues by drawing on historical precedents and insights. For example, understanding the history of voting rights and immigration policy in the United States provides a critical lens through which to evaluate current debates on these topics. Scholars such as Sam Wineburg (2001) emphasize that historical literacy is crucial for countering simplistic or nationalistic narratives. He argues that to be historically literate means learning to question and critically examine the past, rather than simply accepting it at face value. This interrogative stance is foundational for civic engagement, especially in pluralistic societies where multiple, sometimes conflicting, histories coexist.
In the 21st century, digital technology has transformed the way historical information is accessed and disseminated. While this democratizes access, it also creates challenges, such as the proliferation of disinformation, historical revisionism, and algorithm-driven echo chambers. Historian and media literacy scholars alike emphasize the importance of lateral reading, a practice that involves verifying sources by consulting multiple credible references across various platforms (Wineburg & McGrew, 2017). Thus, historical literacy now includes digital historical literacy, the ability to critically evaluate online historical content, including images, videos, and interactive platforms, which may be edited or decontextualized to promote specific agendas.
Implications for Education and Society
Historical literacy is not about revering the past, but rather about understanding it with nuance, critical thinking, and empathy (Wineburg, 2001). It equips individuals to think independently, recognize how the past informs the present, and act with greater awareness in the public sphere. A historically literate public is essential for a functioning democracy. Historical literacy fosters acceptance and understanding by exposing individuals to diverse narratives and cultural histories, encouraging empathy and respect across differences (Barton & Levstik, 2004; Seixas & Morton, 2013). Historical literacy builds resistance to propaganda by teaching people how historical narratives can be manipulated to serve political agendas (Wineburg, 2001).
Historical literacy is deeply connected to civic literacy, as understanding the past enables individuals to engage more thoughtfully in democratic processes, recognize patterns of injustice, and make informed decisions about civic life. Social responsibility is promoted by helping individuals connect past injustices to contemporary inequities (VanSledright, 2008). Promoting historical literacy involves encouraging inquiry-based learning, facilitating debates over primary source documents, and fostering critical engagement with public history as represented in museums, monuments, and media portrayals (Levstik & Barton, 2011; Epstein, 2009). Through these practices, students and citizens develop the tools to question dominant narratives and actively participate in democratic life. In a world saturated with conflicting narratives and contested memories, historical literacy is more than an academic skill; it is a civic imperative (Seixas, 2000; Noddings, 2013).
References
Barton, K. C., & Levstik, L. S. (2004). Teaching history for the common good. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Endacott, J. L., & Brooks, S. (2013). An updated theoretical and practical model for promoting historical empathy. Social Studies Research and Practice, 8(1), 41–58. https://doi.org/10.1108/SSRP-01-2013-B0004
Epstein, T. L. (2009). Interpreting national history: Race, identity, and pedagogy in classrooms and communities. Routledge.
Evans, R. J. (1997). In defense of history. W. W. Norton & Company.
Levstik, L. S., & Barton, K. C. (2011). Doing history: Investigating with children in elementary and middle schools (4th ed.). Routledge.
National Center for History in the Schools. (1996). National standards for history: Basic edition. University of California, Los Angeles.
Noddings, N. (2013). Education and democracy in the 21st century. Teachers College Press.
Santayana, G. (1905, 2018). The life of reason: The phases of human progress. Pantianos Classics.
Seixas, P. (1994). Students’ understanding of historical significance. Theory and Research in Social Education, 22(3), 281–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.1994.10505746
Seixas, P. (2000). Schweigen! die Kinder! Or, does postmodern history have a place in the schools? In P. N. Stearns, P. Seixas, & S. Wineburg (Eds.), Knowing, teaching, and learning history: National and international perspectives (pp. 19–37). New York University Press.
Seixas, P., & Morton, T. (2013). The big six: Historical thinking concepts. Nelson Education.
Wineburg, S. (1991). Historical problem solving: A study of the cognitive processes used in the evaluation of documentary and pictorial evidence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(1), 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.83.1.73
Wineburg, S. (2001). Historical thinking and other unnatural acts: Charting the future of teaching the past. Temple University Press.
Wineburg, S., & McGrew, S. (2017). Lateral reading and the nature of expertise: Reading less and learning more when evaluating digital information. Teachers College Record, 119(13), 1–40.
