Healthcare Wearables and Information Literacy: Navigating Data for Better Health

 

 

By Lilian H. Hill

 

In today’s digital age, health is increasingly data-driven. Dehghani and Dangelico (2018) define healthcare wearables as portable, embedded computers designed to be worn on the body. McDowell (2025) comments that a “dizzying array of devices” is available to “track physical activity, heart rate, blood pressure, temperature, blood oxygen, glucose levels, stress, sleep patterns, and movement” (p. 28). These include smartwatches, smart rings, armbands, smart eyeglasses, ingestible devices, chest-strap monitors, and clothing embedded with sensors. Wearable health technology is not confined to specialized medical devices for patient care. Major tech companies, such as Apple, have developed wearables designed for health-conscious consumers (Kang & Exworthy, 2022). Nearly a third of adults wear a device to monitor their health and fitness. The global market for wearable healthcare devices is projected to reach nearly $70 billion by 2028, with annual growth expected to surpass 11% (Eastwood, 2024).

 

Wearable devices and artificial intelligence (AI) collaborate to enhance health and wellness monitoring by collecting real-time data, including heart rate, sleep patterns, and activity levels, and utilizing AI to analyze it for patterns and insights. AI enables wearables to provide personalized feedback, detect anomalies such as irregular heart rhythms, and support the management of chronic diseases. This combination also plays a key role in remote healthcare, allowing providers to monitor patients more effectively and reduce the need for in-person visits (Moore et al., 2021). Together, wearables and AI transform raw data into meaningful and actionable information.

 

Categories of Wearable Technology

Wearable devices can be categorized into two main types: consumer-grade and medical-grade wearables. The latter are approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, which requires that medical-grade wearables undergo clinical research and meet stringent standards. They require a doctor’s prescription, and many are equipped with an app or receiver to transmit information to the physician. Consumer-grade wearables include smartwatches, fitness trackers, and sleep monitors. These devices typically measure data such as heart rate, steps, calories burned, sleep quality, and sometimes blood oxygen or ECG readings. Unlike clinical or medical-grade devices, consumer wearables are not intended for diagnosis or treatment; however, they offer users real-time feedback and insights to support their wellness and lifestyle goals.

 

Consumer-Grade Wearables

Information literacy is now essential to digital health. While they have become popular tools in personal wellness routines, using consumer-grade wearables effectively requires more than just strapping on a device. It requires the ability to critically assess, evaluate, and use data to make informed decisions. It enables individuals to navigate the complex flow of personal health data generated by wearables. For example, a fitness tracker may tell you that your heart rate variability is lower than average or that your sleep quality declined last night. McDowell (2025) notes that wearable devices may not be suitable for everyone. Although fluctuations in heart rate or blood pressure are normal, continuous monitoring can provoke anxiety in some individuals. When users lack the information literacy skills needed to interpret data patterns or assess the reliability of the information, these readings may cause confusion or stress (Piwek et al., 2016).

 

Consumer-grade wearables are improving in accuracy, but their performance may vary across different types and brands (McDowell, 2025). Algorithms can oversimplify complex health conditions, and not all devices meet clinical accuracy standards. Individuals need to understand the difference between consumer-grade tools and medical diagnostics and know when to question or supplement data with professional input. Information-literate users recognize that data alone is not knowledge. They contextualize numbers, look for patterns over time, and consider additional sources of information, including conversations with healthcare providers, to make informed judgments about their well-being (Lupton, 2014).

 

Medical-Grade Wearables

Medical-grade wearable devices support the management of chronic conditions such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and sleep disorders by delivering real-time data to individuals and their healthcare providers. Technological advances have made these devices more compact and less intrusive than they were before. They enhance patient engagement by providing tools and information that enable individuals to track their health and make informed decisions. Through remote monitoring and early detection of issues, wearables also have the potential to lower hospital readmission rates and reduce overall healthcare expenses.

 

Healthcare professionals increasingly rely on patients' wearable data for remote monitoring. This makes it even more important that individuals know how to read and report their data accurately. Patients who can summarize trends, ask informed questions, and detect irregularities are better equipped to collaborate with their providers and take an active role in managing their health (Kvedar et al., 2016). Advances in telemedicine have improved access to medical care for patients in rural or remote areas. Wearable technology also contributes significantly by supporting virtual care environments such as telemedicine and helping to ease the demand on hospitals and clinics (LaBoone & Marques, 2024). Information literacy, in this context, becomes a bridge between raw data and effective care. A growing body of research indicates that wearable devices can empower individuals by supporting diagnosis, promoting behavior change, and enabling self-monitoring (Kang & Exworthy, 2022).

 

Data Collected by Wearable Devices

Wearables collect vast amounts of data through sensors that track metrics such as steps, sleep stages, oxygen saturation, and heart rhythm. While these devices make health data more accessible, they also raise important questions:

·      What exactly is being measured?

·      How accurate is the data?

·      What external factors might affect these readings?

·      Who has access to and control of the data?

 

These questions point to broader concerns about data privacy and individual autonomy in the age of digital health (Marr, 2020). As wearables continuously collect and transmit sensitive physiological data, users often have limited knowledge of how their information is stored, shared, or used by third parties such as app developers, insurers, or employers. The lack of transparency in data governance raises ethical issues about consent and control. Without explicit regulatory protections, individuals risk losing ownership of their biometric information, which can be monetized or used in ways that impact their access to services or employment opportunities. Therefore, discussions around wearables must extend beyond functionality and convenience to include advocacy for stronger privacy policies, clearer user rights, and mechanisms for individuals to manage their health data meaningfully.

 

Adult Health Learning

Wearables enhance healthcare education by making learning timely, relevant, and integrated into everyday health practices. They enable real-time, personalized education focused on health management and wellness. For example, adults using fitness trackers, glucose monitors, or heart rate sensors receive immediate feedback that helps them understand how lifestyle choices impact their health, promoting self-directed learning aligned with adult learning principles. In chronic disease management, wearables support ongoing education by providing data that encourages patients to adjust behaviors and adhere to treatment plans. Users often find themselves researching the meaning of new metrics or using apps that recommend changes to diet, exercise, or sleep hygiene. The more informed the user, the more likely they are to seek out trustworthy sources, compare conflicting claims, and avoid misinformation. In this way, wearable technology can promote lifelong learning about health and wellness.

 

Conclusions

As wearable technology continues to evolve, it will play an even more prominent role in preventive medicine and personal health. Devices are becoming increasingly sophisticated, featuring AI-driven recommendations, real-time alerts, and seamless integration with electronic health records. However, the real value of this technology lies in the user’s ability to understand and act on the information it provides. Healthcare wearables represent a promising frontier in personal health management, but only when paired with strong information literacy. To benefit from information generated by wearables, individuals must develop the skills to interpret data critically, seek reliable sources, evaluate the credibility of health claims, and make informed decisions. Ultimately, health is not just about collecting data; it is about making sense of it.

 

References

Dehghani M, Kim K, Dangelico R. (2018). Will smartwatches last? Factors contributing to intention to keep using smart wearable technology. Telematics Informatics, 35(2), 480–90. doi: 10.1016/j.tele.2018.01.007. doi: 10.1016/j.tele.2018.01.007.

Eastwood, B. (2024, June 21). The latest trends in wearable technology for healthcare. CDO Times. https://cdotimes.com/2024/06/21/the-latest-trends-in-wearable-technology-for-healthcare-healthtech-magazine/

Kang, H. S., & Exworthy, M. (2022). Wearing the future-wearables to empower users to take greater responsibility for their health and care: Scoping review. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth, 10(7), e35684. https://doi.org/10.2196/35684

Kvedar, J., Fogel, A. L., & Elenko, E. (2016). Digital medicine's march on chronic disease. Nature Biotechnology, 34(3), 239–246. https://doi.org/10.1038/nbt.3495

LaBoone, P. A., & Marques, O. (2024). Overview of the future impact of wearables and artificial intelligence in healthcare workflows and technology. International Journal of Information Management Data Insights, 4(2), 100294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jjimei.2024

Lupton, D. (2014). Health promotion in the digital era: A critical commentary. Health Promotion International, 30(1), 174–183. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/dau091

Marr, B. (2020). The future of wearable technology in healthcare. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2020/01/13/the-future-of-wearable-technology-in-healthcare/

McDowell, J. D. (2025. July/August). Wear your health on your sleeve. AARP Bulletin.

Moore K, O'Shea E, Kenny L, Barton J, Tedesco S, Sica M, Crowe C, Alamäki A, Condell J, Nordström A, Timmons S, (2021). Older adults’ experiences with using wearable devices: Qualitative systematic review and meta-synthesis.
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 Piwek, L., Ellis, D. A., Andrews, S., & Joinson, A. (2016). The rise of consumer health wearables: Promises and barriers. PLOS Medicine, 13(2), e1001953. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001953

The Struggle for Memory: Historical Erasure, Whitewashing, and Narrative Authority

 

By Lilian H. Hill

 

Historical erasure refers to the deliberate or unintentional exclusion of certain events, people, or perspectives from the historical record. Authoritarian politicians engage in historical erasure to avoid confronting past, ongoing, and future injustices. Assaults on historical truth serve a purpose. They prevent people from understanding that discrimination, especially sexism and racism, is systemic and has been maintained through centuries of law, policy, and violence (Walk, 2025). The erasures also deny people access to models of courage and organized resistance, such as Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. Stanley (2024) states that authoritarian regimes often view historical accuracy as threatening because it challenges the cultural narratives they promote to maintain control and legitimacy.

 

Historical erasure results in systematic neglect of marginalized voices, including Indigenous peoples, enslaved individuals, religious minorities, women, LGBTQ+ communities, and colonized populations in textbooks, public monuments, and official histories. For example, history education may omit the contributions of Black Americans to the civil rights movement or the widespread violence against Indigenous populations in settler colonial states. Women’s contributions are diminished or attributed to men. Similarly, working-class uprisings and labor movements are often excluded from mainstream historical narratives.

 

Historical whitewashing and erasure are interconnected processes that involve the distortion, omission, or manipulation of historical facts, often to uphold dominant narratives while marginalizing or silencing others. Whitewashing is a specific form of distortion in which troubling aspects of history, particularly those involving white or colonial powers, are sanitized or reinterpreted to make them appear more acceptable or less violent. Historical whitewashing sends a clear message that only white men are recognized as belonging. This can include downplaying the brutality of slavery or even suggesting it benefited those enslaved, portraying Christopher Columbus as a heroic explorer while omitting his role in the exploitation of Indigenous peoples, or reframing colonialism as a ‘civilizing mission’ rather than a system of exploitation and oppression. Contemporary examples of “rooting a current policy in a made-up history” (Cox Richardson, 2025) include efforts to ban discussions of systemic racism in schools by framing the United States as having always been a perfectly just society. Another example is attempts to justify voter suppression laws by referencing a false narrative of widespread election fraud in American history. Supporters argue that historical erasure and whitewashing preserve history, while critics view it as an attempt to glorify a divisive and oppressive past.

 

Scholars and activists warn that narratives of nonwhite history are being erased at an alarming pace, pointing to examples like the painting over of the Black Lives Matter mural in Washington, D.C., and the temporary removal of Navajo Code Talkers' stories from federal websites (Kwong, 2025). Historical whitewashing sends a clear message that only white men are recognized as belonging. Recent actions include the removal of portrayals of African Americans, women, and LGBTQ individuals from public venues and the terminations of high-profile military leaders who are non-white, LGBTQ, or female. Controversial efforts to bring back public displays like monuments related to the Civil War and to rename military installations honoring Confederate leaders have sparked debate because such figures are associated with defending slavery and opposing the U.S. government. Supporters argue that historical erasure and whitewashing preserve history, while critics view it as an attempt to glorify a divisive and oppressive past. 

 

Historical erasure and whitewashing are not restricted to the United States. Stanley (2024) notes that authoritarian regimes often discourage citizens from challenging idealized versions of national history and impose severe consequences on those who resist. It is no coincidence that educational institutions, both locally and globally, are contested spaces, where efforts to challenge entrenched hierarchies may be silenced through intimidation or force. To maintain control, authoritarian movements seize control of educational institutions in their attempt to erase unflattering history, and with it, the culture of critical inquiry that fuels social and political advancement. In contrast, democracies rely on schools and universities to safeguard collective memory, particularly of progress driven by protests, social movements, and uprisings.

 

Confronting Historical Erasure and Whitewashing

Historical literacy encompasses a set of skills that enable individuals to analyze and comprehend the past critically. When histories of marginalized individuals are omitted from educational curricula, public records, or institutional narratives, it contributes to a broader culture of silence and invisibility. This erasure reinforces systems of discrimination that persist in contemporary society. Such discrimination affects individuals’ mental health, career advancement, and sense of belonging, while also undermining organizational culture, inclusivity, and productivity. Addressing historical erasure and current inequities is essential to fostering a more equitable and truthful society.

 

Both historical erasure and whitewashing have profound consequences. They shape collective memory and identity, influence public policy, and contribute to the continued marginalization of already oppressed communities. When the truth is hidden or distorted, injustices are perpetuated, critical perspectives are suppressed, and the public’s ability to engage thoughtfully with the past is compromised. As Haitian anthropologist and historian Michel-Rolph Trouillot argued in Silencing the Past (1995), history is inseparable from power; those who control historical narratives often shape how societies understand themselves and others. Addressing these practices requires recovering suppressed narratives, teaching multiple perspectives, confronting uncomfortable truths, and critically engaging with historical sources. This is not about rewriting history, but rather about telling a more complete, honest, and inclusive version of it.

 

Confronting historical erasure and whitewashing requires a deliberate effort to acknowledge and preserve marginalized histories that have long been silenced or distorted. Historical erasure often manifests in the exclusion of nonwhite, Indigenous, and women’s narratives from educational curricula, public memorials, and media portrayals. Whitewashing involves the reinterpretation or sanitization of history to favor dominant cultural perspectives, often minimizing or ignoring systemic injustices (Brown & Brown, 2010). These practices not only obscure the lived experiences and contributions of historically oppressed communities but also hinder our collective ability to understand and address contemporary social inequalities. Education plays a pivotal role in reversing these trends by promoting inclusive histories and encouraging critical inquiry that challenges dominant narratives (King et al., 2021).

 

Efforts to confront historical erasure must extend beyond the classroom to encompass broader societal commitments, including public policy, museum representation, and media accountability. For instance, community-led initiatives to rename buildings, revise school curricula, or commission public art that reflects diverse histories are essential in reshaping public memory and identity (Tuck & Yang, 2012). Additionally, resisting whitewashing means engaging with uncomfortable truths, including colonization, slavery, and racial violence, rather than erasing or downplaying them for the sake of national unity or convenience. Through active remembrance and inclusive storytelling, societies can strive toward a more equitable and truthful historical record, one that honors all voices, fosters social healing, and promotes civic engagement.

 

References

Brown, K. D., & Brown, A. L. (2010). Silenced memories: An examination of the sociocultural knowledge on race and racial violence in official school curriculum. Equity & Excellence in Education, 43(2), 139–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665681003719590

Cox Richardson, H. (2025, June 27). Blogpost. https://www.facebook.com/heathercoxrichardson

King, L. J., Swartz, E. E., & Campbell, A. (2021). Teaching Black history as Black liberation. Theory & Research in Social Education, 49(4), 526–553. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2021.1946365

Kwong, E. (2025, March 29). Scholars say Trump administration is trying to erase America's non-white history. https://www.npr.org/2025/03/29/nx-s1-5333846/scholars-say-trump-administration-is-trying-to-erase-americas-non-white-history

Stanley, J. (2024). Erasing history: How Fascists Rewrite the Past to Control the Future. Atria/One Signal Publishing.

Tuck, E., & Yang, K. W. (2012). Decolonization is not a metaphor. Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society, 1(1), 1–40. https://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/des/article/view/18630

Top of Form

Bottom of Form

Trouillot, M.-R. (1995). Silencing the past: Power and the production of history. Beacon Press.

VanSledright, B. A. (2008). Narratives of nation-state, historical knowledge, and school history education. Review of Research in Education, 32(1), 109–146. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X07311065

Walk, T. (2025, April 6). The Trump Administration’s assaults on Black history:

Curtailing truth obscures racism’s historic legacy. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2025/04/10/trump-administrations-assaults-black-history

 

Historical Literacy and Civic Responsibility

 

By Lilian H. Hill

"Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it."
— George Santayana, The Life of Reason: The Phases of Human Progress (1905)

This quote is often paraphrased as, “Those who do not learn history are doomed to repeat it.” It emphasizes the idea that historical understanding is essential to learn from past errors to prevent their recurrence, a central argument for promoting historical literacy in civic education. Historical literacy is more than memorizing names, dates, and events. It involves understanding how knowledge about the past is constructed, how evidence is used to support interpretations, and how history influences the present and future. This form of literacy is essential for developing critical, informed, and empathetic citizens in a democratic society.

 

Core Components of Historical Literacy

Historical literacy encompasses a range of skills that enable individuals to think critically about the past. Chronological thinking involves understanding historical time, sequencing events, and recognizing patterns of change and continuity over time (National Center for History in the Schools [NCHS], 1996). Historical comprehension refers to the ability to interpret primary and secondary sources, distinguish between fact and interpretation, and identify the perspective and context of each source (Wineburg, 2001). Historical analysis and interpretation include comparing different historical narratives, analyzing cause and effect, and considering multiple perspectives and contingencies (Seixas & Morton, 2013). Historical empathy involves understanding the beliefs, values, and motivations of people in the past while avoiding presentism, the tendency to interpret past events through the lens of contemporary norms and values (Endacott & Brooks, 2013).

 

The use of historical evidence requires evaluating sources for credibility, reliability, bias, and corroboration to construct informed interpretations (Wineburg, 1991). Historical significance refers to judging which events, people, or developments are important and understanding the reasons why they matter within broader historical contexts (Seixas, 1994). Lastly, historical revisionism entails the reinterpretation of past events, often to incorporate new evidence or perspectives and develop more nuanced understandings of the past. While this process is a legitimate part of historical scholarship, the term is sometimes misused to describe intentional distortions or denial of historical facts (Evans, 1997).

 

Historical Literacy as a Civic Tool

Historical literacy empowers individuals to navigate contemporary issues by drawing on historical precedents and insights. For example, understanding the history of voting rights and immigration policy in the United States provides a critical lens through which to evaluate current debates on these topics. Scholars such as Sam Wineburg (2001) emphasize that historical literacy is crucial for countering simplistic or nationalistic narratives. He argues that to be historically literate means learning to question and critically examine the past, rather than simply accepting it at face value. This interrogative stance is foundational for civic engagement, especially in pluralistic societies where multiple, sometimes conflicting, histories coexist.

 

In the 21st century, digital technology has transformed the way historical information is accessed and disseminated. While this democratizes access, it also creates challenges, such as the proliferation of disinformation, historical revisionism, and algorithm-driven echo chambers. Historian and media literacy scholars alike emphasize the importance of lateral reading, a practice that involves verifying sources by consulting multiple credible references across various platforms (Wineburg & McGrew, 2017). Thus, historical literacy now includes digital historical literacy, the ability to critically evaluate online historical content, including images, videos, and interactive platforms, which may be edited or decontextualized to promote specific agendas.

 

Implications for Education and Society

Historical literacy is not about revering the past, but rather about understanding it with nuance, critical thinking, and empathy (Wineburg, 2001). It equips individuals to think independently, recognize how the past informs the present, and act with greater awareness in the public sphere. A historically literate public is essential for a functioning democracy. Historical literacy fosters acceptance and understanding by exposing individuals to diverse narratives and cultural histories, encouraging empathy and respect across differences (Barton & Levstik, 2004; Seixas & Morton, 2013). Historical literacy builds resistance to propaganda by teaching people how historical narratives can be manipulated to serve political agendas (Wineburg, 2001).

 

Historical literacy is deeply connected to civic literacy, as understanding the past enables individuals to engage more thoughtfully in democratic processes, recognize patterns of injustice, and make informed decisions about civic life. Social responsibility is promoted by helping individuals connect past injustices to contemporary inequities (VanSledright, 2008). Promoting historical literacy involves encouraging inquiry-based learning, facilitating debates over primary source documents, and fostering critical engagement with public history as represented in museums, monuments, and media portrayals (Levstik & Barton, 2011; Epstein, 2009). Through these practices, students and citizens develop the tools to question dominant narratives and actively participate in democratic life. In a world saturated with conflicting narratives and contested memories, historical literacy is more than an academic skill; it is a civic imperative (Seixas, 2000; Noddings, 2013).

 

References

Barton, K. C., & Levstik, L. S. (2004). Teaching history for the common good. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Endacott, J. L., & Brooks, S. (2013). An updated theoretical and practical model for promoting historical empathy. Social Studies Research and Practice, 8(1), 41–58. https://doi.org/10.1108/SSRP-01-2013-B0004

Epstein, T. L. (2009). Interpreting national history: Race, identity, and pedagogy in classrooms and communities. Routledge.

Evans, R. J. (1997). In defense of history. W. W. Norton & Company.

Levstik, L. S., & Barton, K. C. (2011). Doing history: Investigating with children in elementary and middle schools (4th ed.). Routledge.

National Center for History in the Schools. (1996). National standards for history: Basic edition. University of California, Los Angeles.

Noddings, N. (2013). Education and democracy in the 21st century. Teachers College Press.

Santayana, G. (1905, 2018). The life of reason: The phases of human progress. Pantianos Classics.

Seixas, P. (1994). Students’ understanding of historical significance. Theory and Research in Social Education, 22(3), 281–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.1994.10505746

Seixas, P. (2000). Schweigen! die Kinder! Or, does postmodern history have a place in the schools? In P. N. Stearns, P. Seixas, & S. Wineburg (Eds.), Knowing, teaching, and learning history: National and international perspectives (pp. 19–37). New York University Press.

Seixas, P., & Morton, T. (2013). The big six: Historical thinking concepts. Nelson Education.

Wineburg, S. (1991). Historical problem solving: A study of the cognitive processes used in the evaluation of documentary and pictorial evidence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(1), 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.83.1.73

Wineburg, S. (2001). Historical thinking and other unnatural acts: Charting the future of teaching the past. Temple University Press.

Wineburg, S., & McGrew, S. (2017). Lateral reading and the nature of expertise: Reading less and learning more when evaluating digital information. Teachers College Record, 119(13), 1–40.