Making Sense of Complexity: Typologies of Artificial Intelligence

 

Image Credit: Microsoft Stock Images

    

Artificial intelligence (AI) influences many aspects of modern life and has multiple applications. AI is the ability of machines or software to perform tasks that are commonly associated with human intelligence, such as recognizing patterns, making decisions, or learning from data. AI is designed to mimic human capabilities, including pattern recognition, data analysis, and decision-making, and to perform tasks rapidly and efficiently.

 

Algorithms are a set of problem-solving steps computer programs use to accomplish tasks. AI operationalizes the algorithmic steps in smart machines that perform tasks usually associated with human intelligence such as “learning, adapting, synthesizing, self-correction, and use of data for complex processing” (Popenici & Kerr, 2017, para. 3). Machine learning is an application of AI in which large data sets are analyzed, without direct instruction, to detect patterns that might elude human beings. Generative AI is an artificial intelligence technology that can produce various types of content, including text, imagery, audio, and synthetic data.

 

AI originated in the 20^th century, but only recently have computers had the computational power to make it practical and useful (Anyoha, 2017). Most people are using AI without recognition because AI powers internet search platforms, predictive text, grammar- and spell-check, GPS, social media curation, smart devices, streaming services, and patient portals. Many people conflate generative AI with large-language models such as those used within ChatGPT, but this is only one type of AI.

 

Typologies of AI

It is essential to recognize that AI is multifaceted and has multiple applications. Therefore, it can be categorized in multiple ways: based on capability, functionality, application, or degree of supervision vs. autonomy.

 

Capability

One capability-based categorization is weak and strong or general AI. Narrow or weak AI can perform single-specific tasks such as making Netflix recommendations, facial recognition, self-driving cars, searching the internet, or translating languages. General or Strong AI can perform tasks in a human-like manner (AVContent Team, 2023). Some descriptions differentiate general AI from strong AI, with the former referring to a computer that is as smart as a human in a general sense and the latter referring to computers that have achieved human consciousness. The latter category is still somewhat theoretical because AI has not yet achieved consciousness or self-awareness. This counteracts the idea that sentient robots will take over the world and enslave humans, as many science fiction novels and films would have people believe. Think of the Terminator or 2001: A Space Odyssey. 

 

Another capability-based typology characterizes four levels of AI: (a) reactive, (b) limited memory, (c) theory of mind, and (d) self-awareness. Consistent with the weak vs strong typology, this conceptualization indicates that AI has not yet achieved theory of mind, meaning the capacity “to understand and remember other entities' emotions and needs and adjust their behavior based on these. This capability is like humans in social interaction” (Arya, 2023, para. 13). Humans develop this capacity as they mature. They also develop self-awareness and emotional intelligence, while AI does not.

Four Levels of AI

Functionality

One functionality categorization scheme asserts three categories of AI: (a) large language models (LLM), (b) learning analytics in which personalized learning is tailored for individuals, and (c) big data, meaning using large data sets to conduct comparative analysis between groups of people. These can be expressed in input and output, instructor and student, or data and functions.

Another functionality schematic suggests the following categories:

·       Analytic AI scans large datasets to identify, interpret, and communicate meaningful patterns of data.

·       Functional AI scans huge amounts of data to take actions.

·       Interactive AI automates communication without compromising on interactivity.

·       Text AI uses semantic search and natural language processing to build semantic maps and recognize synonyms to understand the context of user’s question.

·       Visual AI identifies, recognizes, classifies, and sorts objects or converts images and videos into insights. (Sarker et al., 2022).

Application

Yet another way of categorizing AI is by applications in which it is used. For example, expert systems use information collected from recognized domain experts to facilitate fast decision-making. Natural language processing (NLP) enables AI to use language in a human-like manner in chatbots, language translation, and sentiment analysis, which is used to determine whether the emotional tone of a message is positive, negative, or neutral. Sentiment analysis has become an important business function used to improve customer service, market research, and to monitor brand performance. It can distinguish the positive from the negative of a seemingly contradictory sentence such as: “While I liked this product, I was disappointed with the color.”

Supervision vs. Autonomy

This typology is often used to describe the process of machine learning, in which:

·       Supervised learning—all data are labeled.

·       Semi-supervised—some input data are labeled, while some are not.

·       Unsupervised—all input data are unlabeled (Alloghani et al., 2020).

 

These terms can also be used to describe AI. Examples of supervised processing include virtual assistants such as Siri and Alexa, while an example of unsupervised or autonomous processing is self-driving cars.

You may notice overlaps between the different typologies, as the following concept map clarifies.

No matter how you conceptualize it, the field of AI is complex, growing, and rapidly being integrated into multiple fields of professional practice. These typologies highlight the diverse nature of AI, and the various systems designed for specific purposes and possessing different levels of capabilities. The field of AI continues to advance and new typologies may be developed as its capacities evolve.

 

References

Alloghani, M., Al-Jumeily, D., Mustafina, J., Hussain, A., Aljaaf, A.J. (2020). A systematic review on supervised and unsupervised machine learning algorithms for data science. In M. Berry, A. Mohamed, & B. Yap (Eds.), Supervised and unsupervised learning for data science. Unsupervised and Semi-Supervised Learning. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22475-2_1

 Anyoha, R. (2017, August 28). The history of artificial intelligence. Harvard University. Retrieved https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2017/history-artificial-intelligence/

 Arya, N. (2023, November 16). Theory of mind AI in artificial intelligence. Ejable. Retrieved from https://www.ejable.com/tech-corner/ai-machine-learning-and-deep-learning/theory-of-mind-ai-in-artificial-intelligence/#:~:text=Theory%20of%20Mind%3A%20This%20is,like%20humans%20in%20social%20interaction.

AVContent Team (2023, September 14). Weak AI vs strong AI: Exploring key differences and future potential of AI. Analytics Vidhya. Retrieved https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2023/04/weak-ai-vs-strong-ai/

 Popenici, S. A. D., & Kerr, S. (2017). Exploring the impact of artificial intelligence on teaching and learning in higher education. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning,12, 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41039-017-0062-8

 Sarker, I.H.  (2022). AI-based modeling: Techniques, applications and research issues towards automation, intelligent and smart systems. SN Computer Science,. 3, 158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-022-01043-x

 

President Biden Issues Executive Order to Establish Standards for AI Technologies

 

By Lilian H. Hill

On October 30, 2023, President Biden issued an executive order to establish Artificial Intelligence (AI) safety and security standards, protect Americans’ privacy and security, advance equity and civil rights, and advocate for consumers and workers. It employs broad emergency powers, usually only invoked for urgent situations such as the coronavirus pandemic or war, and the power of multiple government agencies to address the risks of artificial intelligence, which Biden described as the “most consequential technology of our time.” Biden has also called on Congress to create legislation to regulate AI as multiple attempts have failed to pass.

 

Released just days before an international AI Safety Summit held in the UK (Zakrzewski et al., 2023), the 111-page Executive Order has seven focus areas: 

• safety
• protection of American’s privacy 
• preventing bias 
• supporting consumers, students, and patients 
• supporting workers 
• promoting innovation 
• advancing American leadership abroad

 

Selected details are described for each focus area below.

 

Safety

 

• AI corporations will be required to conduct safety assessments of their products and submit findings to the federal government before implementing AI technology.
• Safeguards should be in place to shield Americans from AI-facilitated fraud and deception.
• Protocols and best practices will be established to detect AI-generated content and validate official content.
• A sophisticated cybersecurity initiative will be developed to identify and rectify vulnerabilities in critical software.

Protection of Americans Privacy

• Federal backing for expediting the development and application of privacy-preserving methods will be utilized, incorporating the use of cryptographic tools.
• Efforts will be made to strengthen the methods by which federal agencies collect and use commercially available information, alongside privacy guidelines to tackle AI-related risks.

Preventing Bias

• Standards will be formulated to furnish landlords, federal benefits programs, and federal contractors with precise guidelines to prevent AI algorithms from exacerbating discrimination.
• The Department of Justice and federal civil rights personnel will receive training to address algorithmic discrimination and to adopt best practices for investigating and prosecuting AI-related civil rights violations.
• Fairness will be encouraged throughout the criminal justice system by outlining best practices for the use of AI in sentencing, parole and probation, pretrial release and detention, risk assessments, surveillance, crime forecasting and predictive policing, and forensic analysis.

Stand Up for Consumers, Students, and Patients

• The responsible use of AI in healthcare will be promoted, with the Department of Health and Human Services establishing a safety program to receive reports of, and take action against, harms or unsafe healthcare practices involving AI.
• Efforts will be made to shape AI's potential to revolutionize education by creating resources to support educators deploying AI-driven educational tools, such as personalized tutoring in schools.

Promoting Innovation

• AI research across the United States will receive support by initiating the National AI Research Resource pilot program, providing AI researchers and students access to vital AI resources and data and increased grants for AI research in critical areas such as healthcare and climate change.
• An equitable, open, and competitive AI ecosystem will be encouraged by granting small developers and entrepreneurs access to technical aid and resources, assisting small businesses in commercializing AI breakthroughs, and encouraging the Federal Trade Commission to exercise its authority.
• The opportunities for highly skilled immigrants and nonimmigrants with expertise in crucial fields to study, remain, and work in the United States will be expanded by modernizing and streamlining visa criteria, interviews, and reviews.

Supporting Workers

• Principles and best practices will be devised to mitigate the negative impacts and maximize the benefits of AI for workers, addressing job displacement, labor standards, workplace equity, health and safety, and data collection.
• A report will be compiled on AI's potential effects on the labor market, and strategies to bolster federal support for workers facing labor disruptions, including those resulting from AI, will be developed.
• The opportunities for highly skilled immigrants and nonimmigrants with expertise in crucial fields to study, remain, and work in the United States will be expanded by modernizing and streamlining visa criteria, interviews, and reviews.

Advancing American Leadership Abroad

• Strengthen bilateral, multilateral, and multi-stakeholder engagements to collaborate on AI with the State Department, in conjunction with the Commerce Department, leading efforts to establish robust international frameworks for harnessing AI's benefits and managing its risks, ensuring safety.
• Accelerate the development and implementation of crucial AI standards with international partners and in standards organizations, ensuring the technology's safety, security, trustworthiness, and interoperability.
• Advocate for the safe, responsible, and rights-affirming development and deployment of AI globally to tackle global challenges, such as advancing sustainable development and mitigating threats to critical infrastructure.

Ensuring Responsible and Effective Government Use of AI

• Issue guidelines for agencies' use of AI, including clear standards to protect rights and safety, improve AI procurement, and strengthen AI deployment.
• Assist agencies in procuring specified AI products and services more quickly, affordably, and effectively through streamlined contracting processes.
• Expedite the rapid hiring of AI professionals as part of a government-wide AI talent surge led by the Office of Personnel Management, U.S. Digital Service, U.S. Digital Corps, and Presidential Innovation Fellowship. Agencies will provide AI training for employees at all levels in relevant fields.

 

This Executive Order is far-reaching and comprehensive. It builds on and expands the considerations articulated in the White House Blueprint for an AI Bill of Rights. However, news commentary indicates that the Executive Order is only a first step in regulating rapid AI development and implementation, but also indicates that the Executive Order needs to be improved in enforcement mechanisms.

 

References

The White House. (2023, October 30). Fact Sheet: President Biden Issues Executive Order on Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Artificial Intelligence. Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/10/30/fact-sheet-president-biden-issues-executive-order-on-safe-secure-and-trustworthy-artificial-intelligence/

The White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (n.d.). Blueprint for an AI Bill of Rights: Making Automated Systems Work for the American People. Retrieved https://www.whitehouse.gov/ostp/ai-bill-of-rights/#safe

Zakrzewski, C., Lima, C., & Pager, T. (2023, October 25). White House to unveil sweeping AI executive order next week. Washington Post. Retrieved https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2023/10/25/artificial-intelligence-executive-order-biden/?itid=ap_catzakrzewski

ChatGPT and the Publishing Industry

Have you always wanted to write a book, and yet you don’t feel you have enough knowledge, time, and energy? Well, now instead of taking the time needed to develop the expertise, writing skills, and determination to write that book, you can write one in a single day. And you can get it published instantly, too. In this episode, Dr. Lilian Hill explores how ChatGPT has impacted the publishing industry. Listen to the episode and join in the online forum.

 

Listen to Podcast

 

Information Literacy Episode 14 Transcript

References

Jacob, A. (2023, March 22). The ups and downs of ChatGPT for Publishers: Maximize your revenue but at what cost? Monetize More. Retrieved from https://www.monetizemore.com/blog/chatgpt-publishers/

0uz (2023, February 18). ChatGPT Revolutionizes the publishing industry: Are AI writing taking over best-seller lists? Gizmochina. Retrieved from https://www.gizmochina.com/2023/02/22/chatgpt-ai-writing-books-amazon/

Silva, C. (2023, March 3). How ChatGPT and AI are affecting the literary world: Who owns a story written by ChatGPT? Retrieved from https://mashable.com/article/chatgpt-ai-books-literary-magazines

Smith, W. A. (2022, December 16). What does ChatGPT mean for news publishers? Arena. Retrieved from https://arena.im/post/what-does-chatgpt-mean-for-news-publishers

Experimenting with ChatGPT

 

ChatGPT has become a common talk among educators lately. It has raised concerns, but also shown it has value. On this episode, Dr. Lilian Hill explains what ChatGPT is and what can be done with it by sharing her own experiences with ChatGPT. She also assesses ChatGPT capabilities and drawbacks. Listen to the episode and join in the online forum.

You may be interested in reading this article on Critical Information Literacy for Collective Action, published by the American Association of University Professors.

Listen to the Podcast

 

Information Literacy Episode 11 Transcript

References

Hanlon, R. (2023, March 15). What does "ChatGPT" Stand For? Everything To know about the AI that’s growing at a faster pace than TikTok and Instagram. Parade. Retrieved https://parade.com/living/what-is-chatgpt#:~:text=Assisted%20Editorial%20Tools-,What%20Does%20the%20Name%20'ChatGPT'%20Mean%3F,or%20phrases%20in%20each%20input

Wingard, J. (2023, January 10). ChatGPT: A threat to higher education? Forbes. Retrieved https://www.forbes.com/sites/jasonwingard/2023/01/10/chatgpt-a-threat-to-higher-education/?sh=78f3e0151e76

Artificial Intelligence and Challenges to Professional Identity

 

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has been dominating the news lately as it pertains to literature, artwork, and learning. With its advancements and concerns to the educational community, it is important we address it through what has appeared in the news. On this episode, Dr. Lilian Hill analyzes four AI headlines and how they relate to adult education. Listen to the episode and join in the online forum.

 

Listen to Podcast

 

Information Literacy Episode 10 Transcript

 

References

Acovino, V., Kelly, M. L., & Abdullah, H. (2023, February 24). A sci-fi magazine has cut off submissions after a flood of AI-generated stories. NPR. Retrieved https://www.npr.org/2023/02/24/1159286436/ai-chatbot-chatgpt-magazine-clarkesworld-artificial-intelligence

Cumberland, D. M. (2013). Perspectives in HRD: What to wear to a severance party. Human Resource Development International, 25(3), 118-124

Evans, P. (2019). Making an HRD domain: Identity work in an online professional community. Human Resource Development International, 22(2), 116–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2018.1564514

Herrara, L. C., & Iglesia, F. (2023, February 20). Voice actors are training the AI that will replace them: AI dubbing companies promise Morgan Freeman with a perfect Latino Spanish accent. Rest of World. Retrieved from https://restofworld.org/2023/ai-voice-acting/

Kaulio, M. (2021). The Role of Professional Identity in Digital Transformation: The Case of Heavy Equipment Operators in the Swedish Earth-Moving Industry. Master of Science Thesis TRITA-ITM-EX 2021:182. KTH Royal Institute of Technology.

Knight, W. (2022, August 19). Algorithms Can Now Mimic Any Artist. Some Artists Hate It: A new generation of AI image tools can reproduce an artist’s signature style. Some creatives fear for their livelihoods. Wired Magazine. Retrieved https://www.wired.com/story/artists-rage-against-machines-that-mimic-their-work/

Nolan, B. (2023, January 15). This man used AI to write and illustrate a children's book in one weekend. He wasn't prepared for the backlash. Insider. Retrieved https://www.businessinsider.com/chatgpt-midjourney-ai-write-illustrate-childrens-book-one-weekend-alice-2023-1

Plummer, G., & Schmidt, A. (2007). Possible selves and career transition: It’s who you want to be, not what you want to do. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 114, 61-74.