Infodemics: How Misinformation and Disinformation Spread Disease

 

 

By Lilian H. Hill

 

An infodemic refers to an overabundance of information, both accurate and false, that spreads rapidly during an epidemic or crisis, making it difficult for people to find trustworthy sources and reliable guidance. The term is a blend of "information" and "epidemic". It highlights how the proliferation of information can parallel the spread of disease, creating additional challenges in managing the primary crisis. The term rose to prominence in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. During epidemics, accurate information is even more critical than in normal times because people need it to adjust their behavior to protect themselves, their families, and their communities from infection (World Health Organization, 2020).

 

Contradictory messages and conflicting advice can create confusion and mistrust among the public (Borges et al., 2022). An infodemic can intensify or lengthen outbreaks when people are unsure about what they need to do to protect their health and the health of people around them. The situation is so dire that the World Health Organization (2020) published guidance to help individuals, community leaders, governments, and the private sector understand some key actions they can take to manage the COVID-19 infodemic.

 

Characteristics of Infodemics

Infodemics result in more information than most people can process effectively, especially those with low health literacy. With growing digitization, information spreads more rapidly. Alongside accurate information, a significant amount of misinformation (false or misleading information shared without harmful intent) and disinformation (false information deliberately spread to deceive) is disseminated. Information spreads quickly, particularly through interconnected social media and digital platforms, reaching global audiences instantaneously. Infodemics often feature highly emotional, sensational, or alarming content that captures attention but may not be accurate or helpful.

 

Examples of Infodemics

Three global epidemics have occurred in recent memory, each accompanied by infodemics:

 

1. COVID-19 Pandemic: During the COVID-19 pandemic, an infodemic emerged with vast amounts of information about the virus, treatments, vaccines, and public health measures. This included a significant spread of misinformation and conspiracy theories.

 

2. Ebola Outbreaks: Past Ebola outbreaks have seen infodemics where misinformation about the disease’s transmission and treatments spread rapidly, complicating response efforts.

 

3. Zika Virus: The Zika virus outbreak was accompanied by an infodemic, with rumors and false information about the virus’s effects and prevention measures.

 

Understanding and addressing infodemics is crucial for effective crisis management and public health response, ensuring that accurate information prevails and supports informed decision-making by individuals and communities. With human encroachment on natural areas, the likelihood of future epidemics is high (Shafaati et al., 2023).

 

Consequences of Infodemics

The flood of conflicting information can cause confusion, anxiety, and stress, making it hard for individuals to know how to respond appropriately to the crisis. Trust in authorities, experts, and media can be eroded when people encounter inconsistent messages or feel they are being misled. Misinformation can lead to harmful behaviors, such as using unproven treatments, ignoring public health advice, or spreading conspiracy theories. The spread of false information can hamper public health responses and crisis management efforts, as resources may be diverted to combat misinformation instead of focusing solely on the crisis. The plethora of unreliable health information delays care provision and increases the occurrence of hateful and divisive rhetoric (Borges et al., 2022). Infodemics can exacerbate social divisions, as different groups may cling to varying sets of information and beliefs, leading to polarized views and conflicts.

 

Managing Infodemics

Another new term is “infodemiology,” a combination of information and epidemiology. Epidemiology, the study of the distribution of health and disease patterns within populations to use this information to address health issues, is a fundamental aspect of public health. It aims to minimize the risk of adverse health outcomes through community education, research, and health policy development (World Health Organization 2024). Infodemiology is the study of the flood of information and how to manage it for public health. Infodemic management involves systematically applying risk- and evidence-based analyses and strategies to control the spread of misinformation and mitigate its effects on health behaviors during health crises.

 

For example, in their systematic review of publications about health infodemics and misinformation, Borges et al. (2022) commented that “social media has been increasingly propagating poor-quality, health-related information during pandemics, humanitarian crises and health emergencies. Such spreading of unreliable evidence on health topics amplifies vaccine hesitancy and promotes unproven treatments” (p. 556). However, they noted that social media has also been successfully employed for crisis communication and management during emerging infectious disease pandemics and significantly improved knowledge awareness and compliance with health recommendations. For governments, health authorities, researchers, and clinicians, promoting and disseminating reliable health information is essential to counteract false or misleading health information spread on social media.

Image Credit: Anna Shvets, Pexels

 

Strategies for Combating Infodemics

For government officials, public health professionals, and educators, preparation is essential to prevent the next pandemic disaster (Shafaati et al., 2023). Strengthening public health services and investing in research and development for new medications and vaccines are crucial steps. Expanding access to education and resources in vulnerable communities is also necessary to enhance understanding and encourage preventive actions. Additionally, investing in international cooperation is vital to support countries at risk of outbreaks and provide economic assistance to those affected by pandemics.

 

1. Promoting Accurate Information: Authorities and experts must provide clear, accurate, and timely information. This includes regular updates from trusted sources like public health organizations.

 

2. Media Literacy: Enhancing public media literacy can help individuals critically evaluate the information they encounter, recognize reliable sources, and avoid sharing unverified claims.

 

3. Fact-Checking and Verification: Fact-checking organizations and platforms are crucial in verifying information and debunking false claims. Prominent placement of fact-checked information can help correct misconceptions.

 

4. Algorithmic Adjustments: Social media platforms and search engines can adjust their algorithms to prioritize credible sources and reduce the visibility of misleading content.

 

5. Collaboration and Coordination: Effective communication and coordination among governments, health organizations, media, and tech companies are essential to manage the flow of information and combat misinformation.

 

6. Public Engagement: Engaging with communities and addressing their concerns directly can build trust and ensure accurate information reaches diverse audiences. This may include town hall meetings, Q&A sessions, and community-specific communications.

 

Referencesre

Borges do Nascimento, I. J., Pizarro, A. B., Almeida, J. M., Azzopardi-Muscat, N., Gonçalves, M. A., Björklund, M., & Novillo-Ortiz, D. (2022). Infodemics and health misinformation: A systematic review of reviews. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 100(9):544-561. https://doi.org:10.2471/BLT.21.287654.

Shafaati, M., Chopra, H., Priyanka, Khandia, R., Choudhary, O. P., & Rodriguez-Morales, A. J. (2023). The next pandemic catastrophe: can we avert the inevitable? New Microbes and New Infections, 52, 101110. https://doi.org: 10.1016/j.nmni.2023.101110. 

World Health Organization (2020). Managing the COVID-19 Infodemic: A call for action. Author. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/334287/9789240010314-eng.pdf?sequence=1on

World Health Organization (2024). Let’s flatten the infodemic curve, https://www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/let-s-flatten-the-infodemic-curve

 

Navigating the Complexities and Dynamics of the Information Ecosystem

 

 

By Lilian H. Hill

 

The information ecosystem refers to the complex network of processes, technologies, individuals, and institutions involved in the creation, distribution, consumption, and regulation of information. It encompasses various elements that interact and influence each other, shaping how information is produced, shared, and used in society. The use of the term ecosystem as a metaphor suggests key properties of environments in which information technology is used. An information ecosystem is a complex system of parts and relationships. It exhibits diversity and experiences continual evolution. Various parts of an ecology coevolve, changing together according to the relationships in the system (Nardi & O’Day, 1999).

 

While the term Information Ecosystem has been in use in academic circles for more than 20 years, it has penetrated today’s media. The dynamic and often unpredictable information ecosystem we inhabit necessitates renewed focus on the fundamental concepts of that ecosystem (Kuehn, 2022). The relationship between information literacy and the information ecosystem is symbiotic and integral. Information literacy refers to the set of skills and knowledge that allows individuals to effectively find, evaluate, use, and communicate information. It encompasses critical thinking and problem-solving abilities in relation to information handling. The term information ecosystem describes the complex environment in which information is produced, distributed, consumed, and preserved. This includes libraries, databases, media, social networks, and other channels and platforms where information flows.

 

Burgeoning and rapidly evolving information technologies influence information production and access. While the emphasis should be on the human activities served by information technologies, the truth is that technology is radically changing ways that information is produced, accessed, understood, and applied.

 

Components of the Information Ecosystem

Multiple constituents work together to produce, distribute, interpret, consume, and regulate information.

 

Information Producers

·      Journalists and Media Organizations: Traditional news outlets, digital news platforms, and independent journalists who gather, verify, and disseminate news.

·      Academic and Research Institutions: Universities, research centers, and scholars who produce scholarly articles, studies, and data.

·      Government Agencies: Institutions that generate reports, statistics, and public records.

·      Businesses and Corporations: Companies that create content for marketing, public relations, and corporate communications.

·      Individuals: Citizens who produce content through blogs, social media, and other personal platforms.

 

Information Distributors

·      Social Media Platforms: Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn, and others that facilitate the rapid spread of information.

·      Search Engines: Google, Bing, and others that organize and provide access to information.

·      Traditional Media: Newspapers, television, radio, and magazines distributing news and entertainment content.

·      Online Platforms: Websites, forums, and blogs that host and share various forms of content.

 

Information Consumers

·      General Public: Individuals who consume news, entertainment, educational content, and other forms of information.

·      Professionals: Individuals in specific fields who create and rely on specialized information.

·      Organizations: Businesses, nonprofits, and governmental bodies that use information for decision-making and strategy.

 

Regulatory Bodies

·      Government Regulators: Agencies that enforce laws and regulations related to media, information privacy, and intellectual property.

·      Industry Groups: Organizations that set standards and guidelines for information dissemination and ethical practices.

 

Dynamics of the Information Ecosystem

Engaging within the information ecosystem requires participating in interrelated activities. Information is generated through research, reporting, personal expression, and other methods. Verification processes, such as fact-checking and peer review, are crucial to ensure accuracy and credibility. Information is distributed through various channels, from traditional media to digital platforms. Access to information is influenced by factors such as digital divide, censorship, and platform algorithms. Individuals consume information based on personal preferences, biases, and social influences. Interpretation of information can vary widely, affecting public opinion and behavior. Consumers provide feedback through comments, shares, likes, and other forms of engagement. This interaction can influence future content production and distribution strategies. Finally, regulatory bodies and ethical standards shape the practices of information producers and distributors. Unfortunately, technological innovations occur more rapidly than regulation and ethical standards. Issues such as misinformation, data privacy, and intellectual property rights are key considerations.

 

Challenges in the Information Ecosystem

With technological advances, numerous challenges exist, including the rapid spread of mis-and dis-information, information overload, echo chambers, inequities, and increased privacy concerns. The spread of false or misleading information can have significant societal impacts, from influencing elections to public health crises. The vast amount of information can overwhelm consumers, making it difficult to discern credible sources.  Algorithms and personalized content can create echo chambers where individuals are exposed only to information that reinforces their existing beliefs. Inequities in access to technology and information resources can exacerbate social and economic disparities. The collection and use of personal data by information platforms raises significant privacy issues.

 

Artificial Intelligence and the Information Ecosystem

AI systems are reshaping the information ecosystem. Information systems play a crucial role in everyday life by influencing and reorganizing people’s thoughts, actions, social interactions, and identities. Hirvonen et al. (2023) argued that the “affordances of AI systems integrated into search engines, social media platforms, streaming services, and media generation, shape such practices in ways that may, paradoxically, result both in the increase and reduction of diversity of and access to information” (p. 1).

 

Fleming (2023) indicated that AI tools can create distorted histories and fake profiles, presenting them persuasively as facts. The stakes are escalating daily as rapid advancements in generative AI pose the risk of escalating online hate speech and misinformation to unprecedented levels. These voices are not new, but the global reach of social media allows lies and conspiracy theories to spread instantly worldwide, affecting millions, undermining trust in science, and fostering hatred potent enough to incite violence. Pernice (2019) indicates that the questions of how to (1) effectively safeguard the deliberative process of building political will and (2) preserve the legitimacy of the democratic process against various IT-driven manipulation attempts remains unresolved. 

 

Importance of a Healthy Information Ecosystem

Peterson-Salahuddin (2023) commented that concerns within information ecosystems include (1) ways information production, particularly in mainstream journalism, can lead to information inequity in its representations and (2) the dissemination and retrieval of this journalistic information via algorithmically mediated online systems, such as social media and search platforms, can replicate and reinforce information inequity within the broader information ecosystem. A healthy information ecosystem is essential for informed citizenship, effective governance, and social cohesion. It promotes:

 

1.    Informed Decision-Making: Accurate and reliable information enables individuals and organizations to make informed decisions.

 

2.    Democratic Participation: Access to diverse and credible information supports democratic processes and civic engagement.

 

3.    Social Trust: A trustworthy information ecosystem fosters social trust and cooperation.

 

4.    Innovation and Progress: Access to knowledge and information drives innovation, education, and cultural development.

 

In a prophetic comment, Nardi and O’Day (1999) indicated that the ecological metaphor conveys a “sense of urgency about the need to take control of our information ecologies, to inject our own values and needs into them so that we are not overwhelmed by some of our technological tools” (p. 49). Maintaining a healthy information ecosystem requires efforts from all stakeholders, including information producers, distributors, consumers, and regulators, to uphold standards of accuracy, fairness, and transparency.

 

References

Fleming, M. (2023, June 13). Healing Our Troubled Information Ecosystem. Medium. https://melissa-fleming.medium.com/healing-our-troubled-information-ecosystem-cf2e9e8a4bed

Hirvonen, N., Jylhä, V., Lao, Y., & Larsson, S. (2023). Artificial intelligence in the information ecosystem: Affordances for everyday information seeking. Journal of the Association of Information Science Technology, 74(12), 1–14.

Kuehn, E. F. (2022). The information ecosystem concept in information literacy: A theoretical approach and definition. Journal of the Association of Information Science Technology, 74(4), 434-443. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.24733

Nardi, B. A., & O’Day, V. L. (1999). Information ecologies: Using technology with heart. MIT Press.

Pernice, I. (2019, March 5). Protecting the global digital information ecosystem:  A practical initiative. Internet Policy Review. https://policyreview.info/articles/news/protecting-global-digital-information-ecosystem-practical-initiative/1386

Peterson-Salahuddin, C. (2024). From information access to production: New perspectives on addressing information inequity in our digital information ecosystem. Journal of the Association for Information Science & Technology, 1. https://doi-org /10.1002/asi.24879 

 

Historical Literacy and Why It Matters

 

 

By Lilian H. Hill

 

You may remember studying history in school with distaste because of an emphasis on remembering wars, names, and dates, but with little attention given to why things occurred, what they mean, and how the past influences life today. Unfortunately, school curricula often focused on memorization leading to students’ boredom and disinterest. In 2019, the Woodrow Wilson Foundation published results of a nationwide study that indicated that only 40% of American citizens can pass a multiple-choice test based on 20 history questions from the U.S. citizenship test (Gewertz, 2019).  The study's authors concluded that excessive reliance on passive methods, such as textbooks and lectures that focus on memorizing facts, dates, and places, accounts for students' poor understanding of history. History instruction needs to become more relevant and engaging to address this issue, incorporating interactive teaching methods and emphasizing deep comprehension (Lewer, 2019).

 

Historical Literacy

Historical knowledge provides a lens with which to interpret current events and detect false narratives and intentional distortions present in many forms of media. Historical literacy is essential for informed citizenship, cultural understanding, and democratic values. It empowers individuals to participate meaningfully in democratic societies, make informed decisions, and contribute to the ongoing dialogue about the human experience across time. Individuals can contribute to a more just, equitable, and interconnected world by engaging with history critically and empathetically.

 

Historical literacy is understanding, interpreting, and critically analyzing historical events, concepts, and contexts. It encompasses factual knowledge about past events and the skills to analyze primary and secondary sources, recognize historical patterns and trends, evaluate differing perspectives, and draw informed conclusions about the significance and impact of historical events on societies and individuals. Brick (2021), historian and professor at George Washington University, defined historical literacy as the ability to assess evidence and evaluate arguments, to consider various viewpoints and determine their accuracy, to interpret current events in the context of historical ones, and to identify the connections linking patterns over time. With the internet, almost everyone has access to even the most obscure historical facts. Historians are not necessary for this information; instead, it is more important to cultivate critical thinking skills to distinguish credible narratives from false ones. 

 

Historical Research

Historical literacy encompasses skills related to historical research and inquiry, such as formulating research questions, conducting archival research, and synthesizing information from multiple sources. These skills enable individuals to actively engage with historical scholarship and contribute to studying and interpreting history. Historians confront the intricacies of the past by grappling with essential questions like “How do we know about the past?” “What was life like then?” and “Why is it important to remember it?” Lévesque (2013) suggests researching history requires seeking answers to questions such as:

 

·      Why is it important to study history?

·      How does learning about history influence our self-identity?

·      How does historical knowledge build empathy?

·      How does knowledge of history shape understandings of the present?

 

These inquiries engage historians in a research process focused on investigating past events and creating evidence-based narratives. This dynamic and ongoing disciplinary endeavor is open to debate and revision (Lévesque, 2013). Historians extensively use a range of primary sources, meaning first-hand accounts of a topic or event created by people who had a direct experience of it. The results allow for a detailed examination of identifiable trends and societal relationships contributing to modern understanding of historical events. Historical literacy involves identifying themes, patterns, and trends across different historical periods and drawing connections between past events and contemporary issues.

 

 

 

Components of Historical Literacy

Most people will not become historical researchers, however, some knowledge of how history is constructed is required for informed citizenship, as it enables individuals to understand the complexities of the past, appreciate diverse perspectives, and critically evaluate contemporary issues in their historical context. There are several components of historical literacy:

Factual Knowledge: Historical literacy involves possessing a foundational understanding of key historical events, figures, dates, and movements. This includes knowledge of major events such as wars, revolutions, social movements, and significant cultural developments. Beyond a simple recounting of events, historians search for contextual understanding. 

 

Contextual Understanding: Historical literacy involves understanding the context in which historical events occurred, including the political, social, economic, and cultural factors that influenced them. It requires recognizing the interconnectedness of historical events and their broader significance within a particular time-period or geographical region.

 

Critical Thinking: Historical literacy requires the ability to think critically about historical information. This involves questioning sources, considering biases, and evaluating the reliability and credibility of historical accounts. Critical thinking skills enable individuals to analyze historical evidence and arguments and form reasoned interpretations. For example, our changing perspectives about indigenous groups, minorities, and women and recognition of their contributions is a result of critical thinking.

 

Multiple Perspectives: Historical literacy involves considering multiple perspectives and viewpoints on historical events and phenomena. It requires understanding that historical narratives can vary depending on factors such as cultural background, ideology, and personal experience. Engaging with diverse perspectives enriches historical understanding and promotes empathy and tolerance. An example is the continual debate over what the U.S. “founding fathers” intended and whether we should adhere strictly to their intentions, informed by varied interpretations of those intentions.

 

Effective Communication: Historical literacy involves the ability to communicate historical knowledge and interpretations effectively, both orally and in writing. This includes constructing coherent arguments, supporting claims with evidence, and engaging in respectful dialogue with others about historical topics.

 

In conclusion, historical literacy is vital for developing well-rounded, informed, and engaged individuals capable of contributing thoughtfully to society.

References

Brick, C. (2021, May 28). From Jan. 6 to Rick Santorum's firing, America's historical illiteracy is on display. USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2021/05/28/teaching-american-history-matter-life-and-death-democracy/7435

Gewertz, C. (2019, May 7). History Instruction Indicted: Too Much Memorization, Too Little Meaning. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/history-instruction-indicted-too-much-memorization-too-little-meaning/2019/05

Lévesque, S., (2013, February 19). What Does it Mean to Be "Historically Literate"? The History of Education Network. https://thenhier.ca/en/content/what-does-it-mean-be-historically-literate.html

Lewer, B. (2019). Reimagining American History Education. The Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation. https://woodrow.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/WW-Reimagining-American-History-Education.pdf